Thursday, November 28, 2019

Give a little, to get a little free essay sample

The aroma of spilled sweat, worn metal and apprehension flooded my nose as I gazed at the translucent mist that laid over the four lane track I had grown so accustomed to. It finally started, the season that I both dread and anticipate all year had made its way to my calendar, burning a hole in my stomach, reminding me of my unease. I replay my drills in my head, remembering my steps, my numbers for the blocks, the word â€Å"hand† over and over. My sweats can’t seem to keep me warm on this dimming April afternoon and I sit on the bone chilling bleachers with the abused blue baton cradled in my sweatshirt pocket. Shaken by a fellow teammate, I realize it’s time to pull on my hood, prepare my spikes and begin those most detested two laps around the field. Year after year, I make the constant claim, that I do not want the stress, the nausea nor to ever see the faces of my teammates filled with disappointment. We will write a custom essay sample on Give a little, to get a little or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Although I make this exact declaration each year, I still return to the track team with eagerness and delight. I have discovered that I have a strong attachment to these exact components, I love the thrill of competition and the agony of defeat, because they give me the opportunity to experience what its like from both sides of the spectrum. Last season, however, was different, I was to fill the spikes of an infamous senior who started each 4 by 1 and 4 by 2 relay. My stomach lurched as the announcer called the 4 by 1 relay into the bull pen. I was engulfed with the desire to turn around and run. Nevertheless, time beat me to the punch and soon enough my sweats were lying abandoned on the side of the asphalt track, yearning for my warmth. â€Å"Runners to your marks†, breathe, just stay on your toes. â€Å"Set†, keep your hips high and your elbows up, â€Å"Go!† just run as fast as you possibly can! The gun blasted and I kicked the block back with every ounce of nerves I had savored, the rest was up to my team. Throughout the years, I have found that there is an equilibrium where all that you can do meets all that the rest of what your team can do for you. I have always been a firm believer in pushing yourself, but when you are pushing others to accomplish a common goal, there is no greater triumph. In the end each relay has its own conclusion; the spectators see it as you win or lose, the coaches think it’s all about the hand off, and the opposing team decides whether it will be doling out congratulations or gloating in their victory. While to a relay team, the conclusion is whether there was successful team unity or whether there is a scape goat to blame the loss on. The harmony of working on a team has helped me to value cooperation and determination. I found that in order for me to meet a goal with a combined effort from others, I must be a leader and a follower. For me, the relay still comes down to the same components, the team and the baton, and that for it all to work, I must give a little to get a little.

Monday, November 25, 2019

Blues essays

Blues essays Chicago is one of our nations greatest cities, from the Sears Tower to Lake Shore Drive, even Frank Sinatra showed enormous love for the city. It has produced some of the best art and music, and has made itself well known in our countrys short history. But how can you portray such a city onto the big screen? John Landis did a great comedy with Animal House, and he took a shot with filming a movie in Chicago and did it perfectly. The Blues Brothers(1980) shows Chicago as a magnificent city with all races and ethnics. Almost every aspect of the city is shown and you almost feel what it is like to live in Chicago. The Blues Brothers is easily one of the finest movies to ever be filmed in Chicago. The Blues Brothers is a flat out musical-comedy that is just brilliant. The film includes music legends like Aretha Franklin, James Brown, and Ray Charles. All three add a wonderful part into this movie. The Blues Brothers themselves are musicians and as for the comedy part, that comes from Jake and Elwood Blues, played by John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd. They are trying to save the orphanage(which is actually located in Calumet City) that they grew up in, and they try doing this by getting there old band back together. If the band gets back together they can pay Cook County the 5,000.00 dollars the orphanage owes. But in doing this the manage to tick everyone off they run into. Throughout the movie the Blues brothers travel all over the city and you get to see as much as you can of Chicago without going on a tour of the city. The movie starts off with Joliet Jake getting released from the Joliet Correctional Center, located in Joliet, IL. Joliet is one of Illinoiss largest cities, next to Chicago, and is home to numerous prisons. Now with the movie starting out the way it does you can obviously see that the main character is no stranger to prisons, hence the name Joliet Jake. If the viewer has no idea on where Jolie...

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Journal Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Journal Summary - Essay Example These needs imply the needs for self-preservation and economic independence. These are the needs for being free from physical danger, threat and deprivation. Man is a social animal. He therefore wants association, belonging, friendship, love and affection. These are the need to seek affiliation and affection of one’s fellow beings. People form informal groups to seek meaningful association, companionship. This implies ‘a desire to become more and more of what one is, to become everything that one is capable of.’ It involves self-fulfilment or achieving what one considers to be his mission in life. It urges an individual to realize his full potential for continued self development and for being creative in the broader sense of the world. Maslow pointed out that the first three categories are lower level needs. The remaining two are higher order needs. He states that the needs have a definite sequence of priority. They arise in certain order of preference and not randomly. Safety needs do not dominate behaviour until physiological needs are satisfied. Man is a wanting animal. He always continues to want something or the other. He is never satisfied. If one need is satisfied, another takes its place. If one need is satisfied it ceases to be a motivating factor. Thus, if lower level needs are satisfied an individual can be motivated only by satisfying his higher level needs. Physiological and security needs are finite while the other needs are to a large extent infinite. Maslow suggests that the various needs levels are interdependent and overlapping, each higher level need emerging before the lower level need has been completely satisfied. Finally, Maslow points out that an individual may jumble the order and importan ce of the needs according to his preference. Motivation theory is concerned with the employee’s needs and preferences. Frederick Herzberg and his associates conducted

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Target Corporation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Target Corporation - Research Paper Example Upon this foundation, Target is expanding its business operations internationally. It hopes to start retail chains in Canada by 2013. By moving across borders, Target will follow and provide competition for Wal-Mart. Consequently, it will continue to grow and fund additional projects such as expansion through acquisitions. The success of Target is largely attributable to the culture of the organization, which stresses honesty and community (Rowley 145). In this examination of Target Corporation, we hope to accomplish a comprehensive look at the company’s history, financials, capital, reputation, marketing, and future. This all-inclusive view of the company can thus be evaluated in terms of how Target would like to perceive and how the public actually sees Target Corporation as an asset (or a liability) in their communities. Human Capital Target Corporation employs roughly 355,000 employees throughout the United States, who take part in a variety of operational functions such as managing stores, marketing, and customer service (SEC). Employees at Target are generally happy; however, there is some criticism of compensation and benefit packages offered by the company. For instance, it is alleged by labor groups and current employees that Target, based out of Minneapolis, pays less in some cases than their competitor Wal-Mart. does According to a recent survey by UFCW, Target pays entry-level positions a salary of about $6.25 per hour to $8 per hour, depending on qualifications (Serres). This is below- or at-the-market in terms of large retail chains. Therefore, even though Wal-Mart is often the subject of criticisms and community rejection, it seems that Target has a similar pay scheme for low-level employees to their competitor. In terms of benefits, union groups see Target as less equitable than its competitors do. In the early 2000s, Target dropped all health care insurance coverage for part-time workers, while Wal-Mart has maintained its medical plan available to all workers (Serres). However, many employees still agree that it is a better place to work than some other large retail chains, despite the weaknesses in the health care insurance pr ogram. Target’s benefits packages rate high in terms of flexibility for higher-level employees. The 401(k) plans offered by Target considered some of the best in the industry insofar as it matches dollar for dollar up to five percent of contributions made by employees. In addition, Target offers many other programs including the â€Å"Take Charge of Education† program that allows Target credit-card holders to donate 1 percent a year of their purchases to a school of their choice. This is in line with Target’s explicit commitment to the value of family (Rowley 146). Union Involvement Target Corporation is like Wal-Mart in the fact that they are not unionized. In fact, Target sees unionization as a potential threat to their corporate success (Rowley 141). For that reason, the company has published anti-video literature and videos in order to warn their employees about the dangers of a union. Deborah Weinswig, an analyst with Salomon Smith Barney, said that,  "Target is not a union, so it can charge lower prices than other food retailers. In the Northeast, SuperTargets have done extremely well† (Rowley 174). This lends credence to the view that Target would be negatively affected by a unionization of its employees. These efforts were increased in 2009 in response to

Monday, November 18, 2019

CorruptionDefoe's capitalist views and his moral purpose in Roxana Essay

CorruptionDefoe's capitalist views and his moral purpose in Roxana - Essay Example Robinson Crusoe extended the form of the picaresque and turned an adventure tale into a critique of colonialism. Moll Flanders did the same with the class of 'gentlewomen'. Roxana similarly has come to be accepted as a critique of early capitalism -- a time in English history when the industrial revolution was yet not a tactile reality but a creepy creature whose tugs on morality, civility and social infrastructure were being secretly felt. Defoe takes a old world morality tale about a woman's coming to terms with her own profession as a whore and turns it into a contemporary tale about capitalism's philosophy of self-aggrandizement and saleability of the self. In retrospect Defoe will seem prophetic in his constitution of the plot about Roxana's willing acceptance of her profession and how she readily agrees to 'capitalise' it when she knows her moral degradation is irreversible. In medieval morality plays, Roxana's good self would have been saved by a benign god who in a climactic moment would retrieve her from misery. But in Defoe's world emergent capitalism prevails over frivolling morality and what would have been a fallen life before becomes a life of opportunities for Roxana. No wonder Roxana is called Defoe's 'darkest' novel and that explains the crowd of critical and scholarly attention that it has received. The term 'dark' is not a secular word and hence burdens the novel with a given morality and wisdom. By such means it is easy to provide an ordinary, feminist framework for Roxana and turn it into a conventional male author's depiction of a bold woman, too much in control of her sexuality and hence too obviously susceptible to moral decrepitude and eventual fall. But at another level Roxana is a mock tale about capitalism, corruption and individual enterprise. As the novel proceeds, we see Roxana triumphant, outwitting the males in her life and by using them to achieve her own purposes. Later, she is seen to be felled again and reverts to her previous status of misery and helplessness. At one level if this is her punishment for living against the moral standards of the society and the fantasy of a protestant moralist, at another level it is a critique of the

Friday, November 15, 2019

Effect of the Local Environment on Bees

Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Local Environment Europe The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. Bees have an important ecological role; they are insect pollinators providing a crucial service. Without insect pollination human diet would be very different to how we know it now. Declines in pollinators have been reported and by attempting to understand the how the local environment affects bee abundance and diversity it may be possible to prevent any further decline. Samples were collected at six sites across Europe in each site there was a disturbed landscape and a natural landscape and within each of these a hot and a cold area. Samples were collected, pinned and identified to genera and the Halictus measured. Analysis found that there was no significant difference in size between different countries, landscape and temperature. The number of individuals and the number of genera did not significantly differ between temperature, landscape and country however on a smaller country level there were differences in the numbers of individuals and genera at different landscapes. The number of bumblebees was affected by the landscape with more individuals found in the disturbed landscapes; it is possible that due to the foraging ability and feeding preferences that bumblebees are able to gain an advantage in a disturbed landscape. Different genera were found in different regions with high numbers of Panurgus and Panurginus found in Spain and Catalunya. The number of bumblebees was also found to be significantly related to latitude. These differences in composition in different areas could be seriously affected in the face of climate change. The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. 1: Background and importance â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.† Albert Einstein 1.1: The importance of bees Bees provide the critical ecosystem service of pollination (Kearns et al 1998). Insect pollination is essential for our life as we know it. 84% of crops in the EU depend on insect pollination (Williams 1994) and one third of our diet can be attributed to insect pollination, either directly or indirectly (McGregor 1976). Of the insect pollinators it is bees which provide the most pollination, bees which are highly adapted to flower visitation, have been confirmed to be pollinators for 72.7% of crop species and it is thought they could be responsible for the pollination of another 10.2% (Williams 1994, Roubik 1995). Declines in bees point towards serious consequences for natural ecosystem process and agricultural processes (Biesmeijer et al 2006). The declines being experienced on local and regional scales present a worrying situation with habitat loss, fragmentation, agricultural intensification and pesticide use causing declines in honey bees, solitary bees, wild bees and bumble bees (Steffan-Dewenter et al 2005). The greatest diversity of bees in the world is experienced in arid and semi-arid regions of the world including the Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe (Danforth 2007). Most of the bees in the world are solitary bees (National Research Council of the National Academies 2007) and of the solitary bees the majority of them are resource specialists, oligolectic (Wcislo and Cane 1996). Oligolectics are bee species which collect pollen from one genus or species but can collect nectar from a variety of plants, they are often referred to as specialists. Polylectic bee species are generalists; they can collect pollen from a variety of flowering plants and include the honeybee (Apis) and the bumblebee (Bombus). In theory the risk of extinction is elevated in oligolectic bees as their presence and distribution is limited by just one floral host (Zayed and Packer 2007). Work by Cane et al (2006) into urban habitat fragmentation showed the abundance and richness of oligolectic bees to have declined but not to have declined in the polylectic bees. Due to the important role of bees it is essential to understand the abundance and diversity of bees across the landscape and the local factors that affect them. By understanding the local factors affecting the diversity and abundance of bees it may be possible to effectively manage and conserve bees and help to prevent any further declines in diversity and abundance. 1.2: Landscape Much of the natural habitat in Europe has been lost and the habitats with the highest species richness are the remaining semi-natural areas (Pimentel et al 1992). The impact of disturbance on insect communities is not so extensively studied as the impact on vegetation, on the studies that are available results show that different insect groups respond differently to disturbance (Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke 2003). Study by Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke (2003) on the effect of habitat management and landscape on bees and wasps in orchards in Europe showed that the vegetation was more significantly affected by the management practices than the insects. Bee species richness is correlated with the percentage of grassland in the surrounding landscape (Dauber et al 2003, Hendrickx et al 2007, Steffan-Dewenter et al 2002). The bees in the study by Hendrickx et al (2007) showed not only a decline with distance from semi-natural patches but also a decline with increasing management practices. The other groups in the study experienced increased numbers with proximity to semi-natural habitat but no significant declines with increasing agricultural management. The results for bees can be attributed due to bees having such a strong dependence on floral resources (Tscharntke et al 1998). Low plant diversity with limited floral resources may not to be able to support a high diversity of insects thus resulting in lower insect diversity and the ability to support only the generalist species (Westphal et al 2003). Proximity to floral resources and nesting sites is important as foraging distances can be fairly small. Large bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris can forage distances up to 3000m, as foraging distances are related to body size, smaller bees may only be able to forage a few metres (Westphal et al 2006). In the tropical forests of Costa Rica pasture management and the floral resources showed to have no significant impact on the diversity or abundance of bees, however deforested countryside just metres away from the forest contained a different community composition (Brosi et al 2006). The complexity of landscapes means that the impact of disturbance can vary depending on the frequency, intensity and extent of the disturbance (Samways 2005). Moderate disturbance can actually increase the diversity of the area by opening up areas for colonisation by providing ecological niches and opportunities for rarer species (Caswell 1976, Connell 1978, Petraitis et al 1989). Alternately diversity could be lowered as the dominance of opportunistic species is increased (Margalef 1968). Bees depend on floral resources for nectar and pollen and can only travel certain distances from their nesting site to reach it, both flowers and nests need to be close by. Therefore declining floral resources, and declining suitable nest sites, as experienced in large scale disturbed areas, may result in the declining numbers and diversity of bees. 1.3: Microclimate- temperature The microclimate, the lowest two metres of the atmosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 1992), is the layer of the atmosphere where the majority of plants and animals live (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The soil surface (or other substance, for example forest or concrete) influences the heat and moisture budget of the surrounding atmosphere producing localised variations in the climatic conditions, for example temperature, windspeed and humidity. The relationship between plant and microclimate is a close one with plants affecting the climatic conditions around them and the microclimate affects the factors controlling the functioning of the plant including the availability of the products required for photosynthesis. Insects benefit from this interaction and due to the close mutalistic relationship between some plant and insect species, for example plants and pollinators, are dependent on a healthy relationship between microclimate and plants. An unsuitable microclimate will lead to the deterioration of plant life and eventual death of the plant and insects dependent on it. 1.4: Insects, temperature and body size In many insects body temperature is essential in order to gain flight. An insect needs to gain enough energy to fly; it needs to raise the thoracic temperature above the temperature of the environment (Bishop and Armbruster 1999) this can be achieved by basking and endothermy (producing heat in the muscles) (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The size of the insect plays a vital role in the ability to heat up and subsequently fly and forage. A study by Casey and Joos (1983) found that the proportion of heat lost from the thorax per time unit decreases as the body mass of the insect increases, therefore larger insects are slower at gaining and loosing heat. Bishop and Armbruster (1999) also concluded that the ability to raise temperature in order to fly increases with body size making bumblebees better thermoregulators than solitary bees. Even when looking at solitary bees larger solitary bees will be better at thermoregulation than smaller solitary bees. Foraging activity can be restricted by thermoregulation factors (Heinrich 1974) and not just over winter. In the summer months foraging at high latitudes and higher temperatures may prove to be difficult for larger insects with solitary bees reaping the floral rewards. Whilst in cooler areas at lower latitudes larger bees, such as bumblebees will have the advantage (Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Tropical bumblebees have been found to be the largest bees, an exception to the rest of the findings by Peat et al (2205). They found that the mean size of bumblebees varies between different climates with colder climates having a larger mean size than those of warmer climates. Size variation of bumblebees within a region was found not to be related to temperature but other factors, possibly to improve colony foraging with different sizes able to visit different flowers (Peat et al 2005). It is not just at different temperatures, different latitudes and different elevations that there are heat constraints on the species present but also a daily sequence. Heinrich (1976) observed bees visiting flower patches and noted the day sequence process. Large insects, such as large bumblebees, are able to achieve a body temperature high enough to fly at a lower temperature than a smaller insect, for example a small solitary bee. This then means that earlier in the day the bumblebee can begin to forage and last longer into the evening when the temperature of the environment begins to fall. However in the midday heat the bumblebee may become overheated and need to retreat and cease flying for a few hours. The small solitary bee although not able to start until later and unable to continue into the evening will be able to cope in the midday heat and continue to forage (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The temperature of the area determines the foraging activity of bees and will influence the bees present in the area. What is under-researched is the effect of very localised temperature has on the bees and size of bees present. 1.5: Climate The temperature of the environment does not only determine the body temperature of the insect but also the geographical range (Gates 1993). Over the past 30years shifts in the abundance and distribution of a variety of species have been witnessed due to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). Hickling et al (2006) studied the distributions of different taxonomic groups in Britain over the last 25years to examine any shifts in range that may have occurred. A shift in distribution upwards and northwards was found in most taxonomic groups with the latitude being a more significant factor than elevation. Alterations to geographic ranges will impact different organisms in different ways and at different times in their lifecycle. It is possible that the interactions between organisms could be severely affected and possibly even destroyed, in some instances resulting in the extinction of one or both of the species. With these shifts in distributions comes the increased possibility of species extinctions, one prediction for 2050 using a mid-range climate scenario showed 15-37% of species committed to extinction (Thomas et al 2004). In order to avoid the risk of extinction species will have to be able to keep up with the changing climate by migrating at fast enough rates however barriers such as mountains and fragmented, disturbed landscapes may hinder this migration (Pearson and Dawson 2003). General climate models which observe the possible consequences of climate change show a general pattern of the increasing of the Mediterranean summer drought (Gates 1993). As a result it is expected that a shift in species composition will occur and drought conditions will lead to reduced plant cover. This will inevitably impact many insect species including pollinators, such as bees, that will lose their source of nectar and pollen. Research suggests that resource specialists are likely to be the first to suffer declines as they rely on just one plant for their pollen (Cane et al 2006). Looking at the effect of local temperatures on abundance and richness may be able to give an indication of what will follow with global climate change and thus be an aid for planning and conservation measures. 2: Aims and Objectives Bees are essential for pollination and are the key to maintaining life as we know it. Reaching and maintaining the right temperature is essential for an insect’s flight, there is evidence that reaching this temperature is related to body size but does it vary with temperature within a microclimate? Does the local temperature affect the bee diversity and abundance and will this provide any insights into what may happen in the face of global climate change? Within Europe it has been reported that it is the remaining semi-natural habitats that contain the most species richness. If this is the case it would be expected that areas of human disturbance would experience a much lower diversity and abundance. In this project the aim is to examine the effect that the local conditions, temperature and landscape, have on the abundance and genera of bees in a selection of regions across Europe. Within this there are three main objectives to be examined: To determine if the local temperature affects the abundance and diversity of bees. To determine if the surrounding landscape, disturbed or natural, affects the diversity and abundance of bees. To establish whether the size of certain genera are significantly affected by the local environment. 3: Methodology 3.1: Site selection Samples of pollinators were collected in field sites throughout Europe in the summer of 2007 as part of the CITIRAT (Climate Interactions with Terrestrial plant Interactions a Risk Assessment Tool) project. The CITIRAT project is part of the wider EU ALARM (Assessing LArge scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project (http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/). The field sites for the CITIRAT project were pre-determined by ALARM, with the core sites situated in different regions throughout Europe allowing the study of most of the climatic regions in Europe. For each of the core sites there are two sites measuring 4km by 4km within 50km of each other. One of the two sites being predominantly natural or semi-natural and the other site a disturbed landscape. The two focal sites have being selected so that the geological and environmental parameters are as similar as possible allowing the human disturbance to be the most distinguishing features between the sites. Figure 3.1.1 shows examples of the land cover in each category. Table 3.1.1: An example of the classification of disturbed and natural sites, categories taken from the level 3 CORINE 2000 land cover classification. Disturbed Non-irrigated arable land, pastures, discontinuous urban fabric, complex cultivation procedures, fruit trees and berry plantations, agro-forestry areas, olive groves, permanently irrigated land. Natural/semi-natural Mixed forest, coniferous forest, broadleaved forest, transitional woodland-scrub, sclerophyllous vegetation, natural grasslands. Using GIS analysis the temperature for each of the disturbed and natural areas was calculated using a model which combined the elevation, slope, aspect, average daytime temperature, clear sky solar radiation maps. This model then gave the temperatures for points throughout the landscape, the hottest 10% and coldest 10% of points were selected and ranked, the top two temperature points for both hot and cold were then determined and ready for fieldwork to begin. 3.2: Sampling method Each of the two landscapes (disturbed and natural) had two sampling rounds approximately 2 weeks apart. Within each sampling round two hot and two cold temperature sites were used (as predetermined by the GIS analysis). Each temperature spot had three cluster sets of pan traps, one white, one yellow and one blue. Each cluster contained five pan traps of a single colour. Each cluster was situated five metres apart in open, low vegetation at ground level. The pan traps were left out over a two day period in dry conditions with low wind and a temperature of greater than 15 ºC. Leaving pan traps out over a two day period eradicated any daily variation in bee species present due to daily temperature fluctuations. By using all three coloured pan traps bias was reduced as a range of colour preferences could be catered for (Leong and Thorp 1999). When the samples, preserved in alcohol, were returned to Leeds the samples were sorted taking note of the number of honeybees, number of bumble bees, number of other bees, number of hoverflies and the number of butterflies. Anything else that was collected in traps was discarded. The bumblebees and other bees were removed from the sample tubes, and were dried, pinned and labelled. The bees were then identified to genus level and the results recorded. Figure 3.3.1: Map of Europe showing the ALARM core sites. The yellow dots indicate the sites used in this analysis and their ‘country’ label. Adapted from an image available at: http://www.alarmproject.net. 3.3: Analytical method Samples were collected at sites all across Europe. Time and resource restraints meant that not all of the sites sampled could be pinned and identified for use in this study. The sites used were carefully selected with sites showing high variation in elevation and therefore temperature differences chosen. Figure 3.3.1 shows the European sites used in this project and table 3.3.1 shows the latitude and longitude of the sites. From here on these ‘sites’ will be called countries to avoid confusion. Table 3.3.1: Sites used with the latitude and Longitude Country Landscape Latitude Longitude Austria Disturbed 47.5205 14.1432 Austria Natural 48.0125 15.1620 Catalunya Disturbed 41.2620 1.7714 Catalunya Natural 41.2526 1.9006 Germany Disturbed 51.5491 9.7754 Germany Natural 51.4540 12.9410 Italy Disturbed 45.6202 12.4526 Italy Natural 45.7775 12.6088 Spain Disturbed 39.3153 -4.0661 Spain Natural 39.4133 -4.0650 UK Disturbed 51.5082 -1.5310 UK Natural 51.7650 -0.4585 To calculate the diversity for each of the conditions at each of the sites the Simpson’s diversity index, which is â€Å"one of the most meaningful and robust diversity measures†(Magurran 2004) was used. The index works by calculating the probability, that from a community of infinite size, two individuals will belong to the same species. The Simpson diversity index was expressed as 1-D therefore meaning that as the Simpson’s diversity decreases as does the diversity, this logical adaptation of the index mean that the diversity of the samples could easily be calculated and compared. In order to determine if the size of bees are affected by the local conditions one genus, Halictus was chosen due to them making up a large proportion of total individuals present. To measure the Halictus samples a random number table was used to determine which specimens should be measured. All of the specimens were females and from two countries, Spain and Germany. Digital callipers were used under a microscope to measure the width of the thorax, in-between the base of the wings. The numbers of Bombus’ were looked at as well as the size of the Halictus. Bombus’ are known to be (generally) a larger body size and better thermoregulators so provide a good genus to use as an indication of distribution related to the local environment factors. The information available for use in the statistical analysis was the number of individuals, the number of genera, the temperature (hot or cold), the landscape (disturbed or natural), the country, the sample round (1 or 2), the site (either 1 or 2), the diversity (Simpson’s 1-D), the number of bumblebees, the number of solitary bees and for a selection of sites the size of Halictus. The statistical analysis was carried out using R and Minitab for the principal component analysis. Excel was used for the production of some of the graphics. Not all the data was normally distributed, distributions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis used was a mixed effects model but not all data meet the assumptions so where unavoidable non-parametric tests were used, a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL). 4: Results Nineteen Genera were identified; a list of these genera and authorities can be viewed in the appendix A. One genus could not be confirmed despite various opinions but is suspected that it might be Panurginus. 4.1: Individuals and genera Figure 4.1.1: The mean number of individuals per sample round, error bars indicate  ±1 SE. (t66= -5.804, p= A mixed effects model was used for the analysis of the individuals. The random effects were site, landscape and country. The standard deviation estimate for country was 0.528 showing that for the countries there was a variation from the mean, this may affect the outcome of the model. The only significant factor was sample round (t66=-6.456, p= There were no significant differences in individuals within temperature, landscape, sample round or any of the interaction terms. To alleviate the problem of countries having a great variation in the numbers of individuals the model was rerun with countries as a fixed factor. This reduced the variation of the random effects and recalculated the fixed effects. Sample round remained the only significant factor (t66= 5.804, p= The dataset for genera was non-parametric so the model used was the glmmPQL. A very low standard deviation estimate was given for each of the random factors (country= 4.2: Diversity The generalised mix effects model for diversity used Simpson’s 1-D values. The estimates of standard deviation for the random effect of country were extremely low, Figure 4.1.2: The mean diversity (Simpson’s 1-D) for each country. Error bars indicate  ± 1 SE. The diversity was not significantly for any of the factors, Standard deviation between countries was low at 4.3: Bumblebees and other bees The numbers of bumblebees (Bombus spp) were used in a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL) in order to determine if there were significant differences in the variation between temperature, landscape and sample round. The standard deviation of country was high at 1.376 showing that within the effect of country there was a lot of variation from the mean, thus contributing to the variation in bumblebees and possibly influencing the overall model. Of the fixed factors sample round and landscape were shown to be significant. Bumblebee numbers were significantly different for sample round (t79=-3.59, p=0.001, 95%CL) and landscape (t76= -3.314, p=0.001, 95%CL). Rerunning the model with country as a fixed factor changed the results. The standard deviation of the site was low at 81= -3.153, 95%CL), sample round (p=0.001, t81 = -3.394,) and also several countries were significantly different from the control country which was Austria. Catalunya (p=0.001, t81=-3.488, 95% CL), Italy (p=0.043, t81=-2.060, 95%CL), Spain (p=0.014, t81=-2.513, 95%CL) and the UK (p=0.002, t81=3.266, 95% CL). Germany was proven to not be significantly different from Austria (P=0.392, t81=-0.861, 95%CL) (figure 4.3.3). Figure 4.3.2: The number of bumblebees per landscape. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.153, p=0.002, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.1: The number of bumblebees per sample round. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.394, p=0.001, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.3: The mean number of bumblebees per country, error bars represents  ± 1 SE. The number of other bees (bees that were not honeybee or bumblebees) were taken and used in a mixed effect generalised linear model (glmmPQL). The model was initially run with the random factors of country and site. The standard deviation for country was 0.968 Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Local Environment Europe The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. Bees have an important ecological role; they are insect pollinators providing a crucial service. Without insect pollination human diet would be very different to how we know it now. Declines in pollinators have been reported and by attempting to understand the how the local environment affects bee abundance and diversity it may be possible to prevent any further decline. Samples were collected at six sites across Europe in each site there was a disturbed landscape and a natural landscape and within each of these a hot and a cold area. Samples were collected, pinned and identified to genera and the Halictus measured. Analysis found that there was no significant difference in size between different countries, landscape and temperature. The number of individuals and the number of genera did not significantly differ between temperature, landscape and country however on a smaller country level there were differences in the numbers of individuals and genera at different landscapes. The number of bumblebees was affected by the landscape with more individuals found in the disturbed landscapes; it is possible that due to the foraging ability and feeding preferences that bumblebees are able to gain an advantage in a disturbed landscape. Different genera were found in different regions with high numbers of Panurgus and Panurginus found in Spain and Catalunya. The number of bumblebees was also found to be significantly related to latitude. These differences in composition in different areas could be seriously affected in the face of climate change. The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. 1: Background and importance â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.† Albert Einstein 1.1: The importance of bees Bees provide the critical ecosystem service of pollination (Kearns et al 1998). Insect pollination is essential for our life as we know it. 84% of crops in the EU depend on insect pollination (Williams 1994) and one third of our diet can be attributed to insect pollination, either directly or indirectly (McGregor 1976). Of the insect pollinators it is bees which provide the most pollination, bees which are highly adapted to flower visitation, have been confirmed to be pollinators for 72.7% of crop species and it is thought they could be responsible for the pollination of another 10.2% (Williams 1994, Roubik 1995). Declines in bees point towards serious consequences for natural ecosystem process and agricultural processes (Biesmeijer et al 2006). The declines being experienced on local and regional scales present a worrying situation with habitat loss, fragmentation, agricultural intensification and pesticide use causing declines in honey bees, solitary bees, wild bees and bumble bees (Steffan-Dewenter et al 2005). The greatest diversity of bees in the world is experienced in arid and semi-arid regions of the world including the Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe (Danforth 2007). Most of the bees in the world are solitary bees (National Research Council of the National Academies 2007) and of the solitary bees the majority of them are resource specialists, oligolectic (Wcislo and Cane 1996). Oligolectics are bee species which collect pollen from one genus or species but can collect nectar from a variety of plants, they are often referred to as specialists. Polylectic bee species are generalists; they can collect pollen from a variety of flowering plants and include the honeybee (Apis) and the bumblebee (Bombus). In theory the risk of extinction is elevated in oligolectic bees as their presence and distribution is limited by just one floral host (Zayed and Packer 2007). Work by Cane et al (2006) into urban habitat fragmentation showed the abundance and richness of oligolectic bees to have declined but not to have declined in the polylectic bees. Due to the important role of bees it is essential to understand the abundance and diversity of bees across the landscape and the local factors that affect them. By understanding the local factors affecting the diversity and abundance of bees it may be possible to effectively manage and conserve bees and help to prevent any further declines in diversity and abundance. 1.2: Landscape Much of the natural habitat in Europe has been lost and the habitats with the highest species richness are the remaining semi-natural areas (Pimentel et al 1992). The impact of disturbance on insect communities is not so extensively studied as the impact on vegetation, on the studies that are available results show that different insect groups respond differently to disturbance (Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke 2003). Study by Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke (2003) on the effect of habitat management and landscape on bees and wasps in orchards in Europe showed that the vegetation was more significantly affected by the management practices than the insects. Bee species richness is correlated with the percentage of grassland in the surrounding landscape (Dauber et al 2003, Hendrickx et al 2007, Steffan-Dewenter et al 2002). The bees in the study by Hendrickx et al (2007) showed not only a decline with distance from semi-natural patches but also a decline with increasing management practices. The other groups in the study experienced increased numbers with proximity to semi-natural habitat but no significant declines with increasing agricultural management. The results for bees can be attributed due to bees having such a strong dependence on floral resources (Tscharntke et al 1998). Low plant diversity with limited floral resources may not to be able to support a high diversity of insects thus resulting in lower insect diversity and the ability to support only the generalist species (Westphal et al 2003). Proximity to floral resources and nesting sites is important as foraging distances can be fairly small. Large bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris can forage distances up to 3000m, as foraging distances are related to body size, smaller bees may only be able to forage a few metres (Westphal et al 2006). In the tropical forests of Costa Rica pasture management and the floral resources showed to have no significant impact on the diversity or abundance of bees, however deforested countryside just metres away from the forest contained a different community composition (Brosi et al 2006). The complexity of landscapes means that the impact of disturbance can vary depending on the frequency, intensity and extent of the disturbance (Samways 2005). Moderate disturbance can actually increase the diversity of the area by opening up areas for colonisation by providing ecological niches and opportunities for rarer species (Caswell 1976, Connell 1978, Petraitis et al 1989). Alternately diversity could be lowered as the dominance of opportunistic species is increased (Margalef 1968). Bees depend on floral resources for nectar and pollen and can only travel certain distances from their nesting site to reach it, both flowers and nests need to be close by. Therefore declining floral resources, and declining suitable nest sites, as experienced in large scale disturbed areas, may result in the declining numbers and diversity of bees. 1.3: Microclimate- temperature The microclimate, the lowest two metres of the atmosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 1992), is the layer of the atmosphere where the majority of plants and animals live (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The soil surface (or other substance, for example forest or concrete) influences the heat and moisture budget of the surrounding atmosphere producing localised variations in the climatic conditions, for example temperature, windspeed and humidity. The relationship between plant and microclimate is a close one with plants affecting the climatic conditions around them and the microclimate affects the factors controlling the functioning of the plant including the availability of the products required for photosynthesis. Insects benefit from this interaction and due to the close mutalistic relationship between some plant and insect species, for example plants and pollinators, are dependent on a healthy relationship between microclimate and plants. An unsuitable microclimate will lead to the deterioration of plant life and eventual death of the plant and insects dependent on it. 1.4: Insects, temperature and body size In many insects body temperature is essential in order to gain flight. An insect needs to gain enough energy to fly; it needs to raise the thoracic temperature above the temperature of the environment (Bishop and Armbruster 1999) this can be achieved by basking and endothermy (producing heat in the muscles) (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The size of the insect plays a vital role in the ability to heat up and subsequently fly and forage. A study by Casey and Joos (1983) found that the proportion of heat lost from the thorax per time unit decreases as the body mass of the insect increases, therefore larger insects are slower at gaining and loosing heat. Bishop and Armbruster (1999) also concluded that the ability to raise temperature in order to fly increases with body size making bumblebees better thermoregulators than solitary bees. Even when looking at solitary bees larger solitary bees will be better at thermoregulation than smaller solitary bees. Foraging activity can be restricted by thermoregulation factors (Heinrich 1974) and not just over winter. In the summer months foraging at high latitudes and higher temperatures may prove to be difficult for larger insects with solitary bees reaping the floral rewards. Whilst in cooler areas at lower latitudes larger bees, such as bumblebees will have the advantage (Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Tropical bumblebees have been found to be the largest bees, an exception to the rest of the findings by Peat et al (2205). They found that the mean size of bumblebees varies between different climates with colder climates having a larger mean size than those of warmer climates. Size variation of bumblebees within a region was found not to be related to temperature but other factors, possibly to improve colony foraging with different sizes able to visit different flowers (Peat et al 2005). It is not just at different temperatures, different latitudes and different elevations that there are heat constraints on the species present but also a daily sequence. Heinrich (1976) observed bees visiting flower patches and noted the day sequence process. Large insects, such as large bumblebees, are able to achieve a body temperature high enough to fly at a lower temperature than a smaller insect, for example a small solitary bee. This then means that earlier in the day the bumblebee can begin to forage and last longer into the evening when the temperature of the environment begins to fall. However in the midday heat the bumblebee may become overheated and need to retreat and cease flying for a few hours. The small solitary bee although not able to start until later and unable to continue into the evening will be able to cope in the midday heat and continue to forage (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The temperature of the area determines the foraging activity of bees and will influence the bees present in the area. What is under-researched is the effect of very localised temperature has on the bees and size of bees present. 1.5: Climate The temperature of the environment does not only determine the body temperature of the insect but also the geographical range (Gates 1993). Over the past 30years shifts in the abundance and distribution of a variety of species have been witnessed due to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). Hickling et al (2006) studied the distributions of different taxonomic groups in Britain over the last 25years to examine any shifts in range that may have occurred. A shift in distribution upwards and northwards was found in most taxonomic groups with the latitude being a more significant factor than elevation. Alterations to geographic ranges will impact different organisms in different ways and at different times in their lifecycle. It is possible that the interactions between organisms could be severely affected and possibly even destroyed, in some instances resulting in the extinction of one or both of the species. With these shifts in distributions comes the increased possibility of species extinctions, one prediction for 2050 using a mid-range climate scenario showed 15-37% of species committed to extinction (Thomas et al 2004). In order to avoid the risk of extinction species will have to be able to keep up with the changing climate by migrating at fast enough rates however barriers such as mountains and fragmented, disturbed landscapes may hinder this migration (Pearson and Dawson 2003). General climate models which observe the possible consequences of climate change show a general pattern of the increasing of the Mediterranean summer drought (Gates 1993). As a result it is expected that a shift in species composition will occur and drought conditions will lead to reduced plant cover. This will inevitably impact many insect species including pollinators, such as bees, that will lose their source of nectar and pollen. Research suggests that resource specialists are likely to be the first to suffer declines as they rely on just one plant for their pollen (Cane et al 2006). Looking at the effect of local temperatures on abundance and richness may be able to give an indication of what will follow with global climate change and thus be an aid for planning and conservation measures. 2: Aims and Objectives Bees are essential for pollination and are the key to maintaining life as we know it. Reaching and maintaining the right temperature is essential for an insect’s flight, there is evidence that reaching this temperature is related to body size but does it vary with temperature within a microclimate? Does the local temperature affect the bee diversity and abundance and will this provide any insights into what may happen in the face of global climate change? Within Europe it has been reported that it is the remaining semi-natural habitats that contain the most species richness. If this is the case it would be expected that areas of human disturbance would experience a much lower diversity and abundance. In this project the aim is to examine the effect that the local conditions, temperature and landscape, have on the abundance and genera of bees in a selection of regions across Europe. Within this there are three main objectives to be examined: To determine if the local temperature affects the abundance and diversity of bees. To determine if the surrounding landscape, disturbed or natural, affects the diversity and abundance of bees. To establish whether the size of certain genera are significantly affected by the local environment. 3: Methodology 3.1: Site selection Samples of pollinators were collected in field sites throughout Europe in the summer of 2007 as part of the CITIRAT (Climate Interactions with Terrestrial plant Interactions a Risk Assessment Tool) project. The CITIRAT project is part of the wider EU ALARM (Assessing LArge scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project (http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/). The field sites for the CITIRAT project were pre-determined by ALARM, with the core sites situated in different regions throughout Europe allowing the study of most of the climatic regions in Europe. For each of the core sites there are two sites measuring 4km by 4km within 50km of each other. One of the two sites being predominantly natural or semi-natural and the other site a disturbed landscape. The two focal sites have being selected so that the geological and environmental parameters are as similar as possible allowing the human disturbance to be the most distinguishing features between the sites. Figure 3.1.1 shows examples of the land cover in each category. Table 3.1.1: An example of the classification of disturbed and natural sites, categories taken from the level 3 CORINE 2000 land cover classification. Disturbed Non-irrigated arable land, pastures, discontinuous urban fabric, complex cultivation procedures, fruit trees and berry plantations, agro-forestry areas, olive groves, permanently irrigated land. Natural/semi-natural Mixed forest, coniferous forest, broadleaved forest, transitional woodland-scrub, sclerophyllous vegetation, natural grasslands. Using GIS analysis the temperature for each of the disturbed and natural areas was calculated using a model which combined the elevation, slope, aspect, average daytime temperature, clear sky solar radiation maps. This model then gave the temperatures for points throughout the landscape, the hottest 10% and coldest 10% of points were selected and ranked, the top two temperature points for both hot and cold were then determined and ready for fieldwork to begin. 3.2: Sampling method Each of the two landscapes (disturbed and natural) had two sampling rounds approximately 2 weeks apart. Within each sampling round two hot and two cold temperature sites were used (as predetermined by the GIS analysis). Each temperature spot had three cluster sets of pan traps, one white, one yellow and one blue. Each cluster contained five pan traps of a single colour. Each cluster was situated five metres apart in open, low vegetation at ground level. The pan traps were left out over a two day period in dry conditions with low wind and a temperature of greater than 15 ºC. Leaving pan traps out over a two day period eradicated any daily variation in bee species present due to daily temperature fluctuations. By using all three coloured pan traps bias was reduced as a range of colour preferences could be catered for (Leong and Thorp 1999). When the samples, preserved in alcohol, were returned to Leeds the samples were sorted taking note of the number of honeybees, number of bumble bees, number of other bees, number of hoverflies and the number of butterflies. Anything else that was collected in traps was discarded. The bumblebees and other bees were removed from the sample tubes, and were dried, pinned and labelled. The bees were then identified to genus level and the results recorded. Figure 3.3.1: Map of Europe showing the ALARM core sites. The yellow dots indicate the sites used in this analysis and their ‘country’ label. Adapted from an image available at: http://www.alarmproject.net. 3.3: Analytical method Samples were collected at sites all across Europe. Time and resource restraints meant that not all of the sites sampled could be pinned and identified for use in this study. The sites used were carefully selected with sites showing high variation in elevation and therefore temperature differences chosen. Figure 3.3.1 shows the European sites used in this project and table 3.3.1 shows the latitude and longitude of the sites. From here on these ‘sites’ will be called countries to avoid confusion. Table 3.3.1: Sites used with the latitude and Longitude Country Landscape Latitude Longitude Austria Disturbed 47.5205 14.1432 Austria Natural 48.0125 15.1620 Catalunya Disturbed 41.2620 1.7714 Catalunya Natural 41.2526 1.9006 Germany Disturbed 51.5491 9.7754 Germany Natural 51.4540 12.9410 Italy Disturbed 45.6202 12.4526 Italy Natural 45.7775 12.6088 Spain Disturbed 39.3153 -4.0661 Spain Natural 39.4133 -4.0650 UK Disturbed 51.5082 -1.5310 UK Natural 51.7650 -0.4585 To calculate the diversity for each of the conditions at each of the sites the Simpson’s diversity index, which is â€Å"one of the most meaningful and robust diversity measures†(Magurran 2004) was used. The index works by calculating the probability, that from a community of infinite size, two individuals will belong to the same species. The Simpson diversity index was expressed as 1-D therefore meaning that as the Simpson’s diversity decreases as does the diversity, this logical adaptation of the index mean that the diversity of the samples could easily be calculated and compared. In order to determine if the size of bees are affected by the local conditions one genus, Halictus was chosen due to them making up a large proportion of total individuals present. To measure the Halictus samples a random number table was used to determine which specimens should be measured. All of the specimens were females and from two countries, Spain and Germany. Digital callipers were used under a microscope to measure the width of the thorax, in-between the base of the wings. The numbers of Bombus’ were looked at as well as the size of the Halictus. Bombus’ are known to be (generally) a larger body size and better thermoregulators so provide a good genus to use as an indication of distribution related to the local environment factors. The information available for use in the statistical analysis was the number of individuals, the number of genera, the temperature (hot or cold), the landscape (disturbed or natural), the country, the sample round (1 or 2), the site (either 1 or 2), the diversity (Simpson’s 1-D), the number of bumblebees, the number of solitary bees and for a selection of sites the size of Halictus. The statistical analysis was carried out using R and Minitab for the principal component analysis. Excel was used for the production of some of the graphics. Not all the data was normally distributed, distributions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis used was a mixed effects model but not all data meet the assumptions so where unavoidable non-parametric tests were used, a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL). 4: Results Nineteen Genera were identified; a list of these genera and authorities can be viewed in the appendix A. One genus could not be confirmed despite various opinions but is suspected that it might be Panurginus. 4.1: Individuals and genera Figure 4.1.1: The mean number of individuals per sample round, error bars indicate  ±1 SE. (t66= -5.804, p= A mixed effects model was used for the analysis of the individuals. The random effects were site, landscape and country. The standard deviation estimate for country was 0.528 showing that for the countries there was a variation from the mean, this may affect the outcome of the model. The only significant factor was sample round (t66=-6.456, p= There were no significant differences in individuals within temperature, landscape, sample round or any of the interaction terms. To alleviate the problem of countries having a great variation in the numbers of individuals the model was rerun with countries as a fixed factor. This reduced the variation of the random effects and recalculated the fixed effects. Sample round remained the only significant factor (t66= 5.804, p= The dataset for genera was non-parametric so the model used was the glmmPQL. A very low standard deviation estimate was given for each of the random factors (country= 4.2: Diversity The generalised mix effects model for diversity used Simpson’s 1-D values. The estimates of standard deviation for the random effect of country were extremely low, Figure 4.1.2: The mean diversity (Simpson’s 1-D) for each country. Error bars indicate  ± 1 SE. The diversity was not significantly for any of the factors, Standard deviation between countries was low at 4.3: Bumblebees and other bees The numbers of bumblebees (Bombus spp) were used in a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL) in order to determine if there were significant differences in the variation between temperature, landscape and sample round. The standard deviation of country was high at 1.376 showing that within the effect of country there was a lot of variation from the mean, thus contributing to the variation in bumblebees and possibly influencing the overall model. Of the fixed factors sample round and landscape were shown to be significant. Bumblebee numbers were significantly different for sample round (t79=-3.59, p=0.001, 95%CL) and landscape (t76= -3.314, p=0.001, 95%CL). Rerunning the model with country as a fixed factor changed the results. The standard deviation of the site was low at 81= -3.153, 95%CL), sample round (p=0.001, t81 = -3.394,) and also several countries were significantly different from the control country which was Austria. Catalunya (p=0.001, t81=-3.488, 95% CL), Italy (p=0.043, t81=-2.060, 95%CL), Spain (p=0.014, t81=-2.513, 95%CL) and the UK (p=0.002, t81=3.266, 95% CL). Germany was proven to not be significantly different from Austria (P=0.392, t81=-0.861, 95%CL) (figure 4.3.3). Figure 4.3.2: The number of bumblebees per landscape. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.153, p=0.002, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.1: The number of bumblebees per sample round. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.394, p=0.001, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.3: The mean number of bumblebees per country, error bars represents  ± 1 SE. The number of other bees (bees that were not honeybee or bumblebees) were taken and used in a mixed effect generalised linear model (glmmPQL). The model was initially run with the random factors of country and site. The standard deviation for country was 0.968

Wednesday, November 13, 2019

Essay --

In this paper straight line structures are generated on surface of Polymethylmethacrylat (PMMA) with UV-Lamp and Excimer-Laser in order to photolytically increase its refractive index to allow guiding of light in the sample. The structures were engraved using contact mask sampling on surface of PMMA with UV-Lamp (spectrum wavelength 100nm - 410nm) and Excimer-Laser (wavelength 248nm) supplemented by micromachining directly on surface of PMMA with Excimer-Laser. The fabricated structures on the surface of PMMA of few micrometers were then examined for its change in refractive index using a single mode ber (wavelength 670nm) and Beamlux II softwarea. Our sim- ple experiment compliments the previously found studies such that refractive index pro le strongly depends on the irradiation doses, uence and laser pulse rate. The conclusion points toward using PMMA substrate for optoelectronic use by creating waveguides with UV or Excimer-laser because it is an inexpensive, simple and fast method. Masks allow creating waveguides with single mode property with width as small as 3um allowing speci c-to-need created structures and waveguides by altering irradiation parameters. It is wise to point out that the experiment has been thoroughly researched however conducted in a narrow scope of a laboratory project complimenting the lectures for understanding the electromagnetic theory of wave guide and ray optical mode of propagation in planar subwave but only with the aim of creating a substantial understanding of working principles behind waveguides only to serve later for as a ground work for thesis, new ndings or research purposes. Indeed polymers have become very important in the eld of integrated optics area for communication and sensor t... ...ntrast between fabrication of UV lamp and Excimer laser. Since we did not use the detector, it can be the UV Lamp power rating had degraded over the passage of time. Waveguide ends on the mask were not polished either before being irradiated. The PMMA sample was manufactured by Roehm GmbH which includes UV stabilizing characteristic 6. Furthermore, Frank[21] has been able to produce excellent waveguides with UV radiation but with uence at 1mW=cm2 and irradiated for 2-3 hours totaling a complete dose in the range of 7J=cm2 to 14J=cm2 . Therefore, we concluded that perhaps our irradiation and complete dose was too little to cause a refractive index change. The whole experiment was conducted over a period of approximately 10 weeks and no change in the waveguides over the passage of time was observed which points towards its practical application in sensor technology.

Monday, November 11, 2019

HEALTH INSURANCE SECTOR IN INDIA: CURRENT SCENARIO Essay

1.1 Introduction: Health and health care need to be distinguished from each other for no better reason than that the former is often incorrectly seen as a direct function of the latter. Heath is clearly not the mere absence of disease. Good Health confers on a person or groups freedom from illness – and the ability to realize one’s potential. Health is therefore best understood as the indispensable basis for defining a person’s sense of well being. The health of populations is a distinct key issue in public policy discourse in every mature society often determining the deployment of huge society. They include its cultural understanding of ill health and well-being, extent of socio-economic disparities, reach of health services and quality and costs of care. and current bio-mcdical understanding about health and illness. Health care covers not merely medical care but also all aspects pro preventive care too. Nor can it be limited to care rendered by or financed out of public expenditure- within the government sector alone but must  include incentives and disincentives for self care and care paid for by private citizens to get over ill health. Where, as in India, private out-of-pocket expenditure dominates the cost financing health care, the effects are bound t be regressive. Heath care at its essential core is widely recognized to be a public good. Its demand and supply cannot therefore, be left to be regulated solely by the invisible had of the market. Nor can it be established on considerations of utility maximizing conduct alone.1 Health insurance in a narrow sense would be ‘an individual or group purchasing health care coverage in advance by paying a fee called premium.’ In its broader sense, it would be any arrangement that helps to defer, delay, reduce or altogether avoid payment for health care incurred by individuals and households. Given the appropriateness of this definition in the Indian context, this is the definition, we would adopt. The health insurance market in India is very limited covering about 10% of the total population. 1.2 Hypothesis: The Researcher assumes that all projections of health care in India must in the end rest on the overall changes in its political economy – on progress made in poverty mitigation (health care to the poor) in reduction of inequalities (health inequalities affecting access/quality’), in generation of employment /income streams (to facilitate capacity to pay and to accept individual responsibility for one’s health ) in public information and development communication (to promote preventive self care and risk reduction by conducive life styles ) and in personal life style changes. 1.3 Research Methodology: In this endeavour, both primary and secondary sources of data have been used to prepare the present paper. Further, it must be noted that the present paper discusses in detail the Indian position in this regard. 1.4 Object : The purpose of this paper is to study the Situation exists in a scenario where health care is financed through general tax revenue, community financing, out of pocket payment and social and private health insurance schemes. 1.5 Scope : The Scope this Research is limited to the extent of Indian position in this regard, while ignoring the foreign Scope. Chapter-2 Health Insurance: Health insurance in a narrow sense would be ‘an individual or group purchasing health care coverage in advance by paying a fee called premium.’ In its broader sense, it would be any arrangement that helps to defer, delay, reduce or altogether avoid payment for health care incurred by individuals and households. Given the appropriateness of this definition in the Indian context, this is the definition, we would adopt. The health insurance market in India is very limited covering about 10% of the total population2. The existing schemes can be categorized as: (1) Voluntary health insurance schemes or private-for-profit schemes; (2) Employer-based schemes; (3) Insurance offered by NGOs / community based health insurance, and (4) Mandatory health insurance schemes or government run schemes(namely ESIS, CGHS).3 2.1 Voluntary health insurance schemes or private-for-profit schemes: In private insurance, buyers are willing to pay premium to an insurance company that pools people with similar risks and insures them for health expenses. The key distinction is that the premiums are set at a level, which provides a profit to third party and provider institutions. Premiums are based on an assessment of the risk status of the consumer (or of the group of employees) and the level of benefits provided, rather than as a proportion of the consumer’s income. 4 In the public sector, the General Insurance Corporation (GIC) and its four subsidiary companies (National Insurance Corporation, New India Assurance Company, Oriental Insurance Company and United Insurance Company) and the Life Insurance Corporation (LIC) of India provide voluntary insurance  schemes. The Life Insurance Corporation offers Ashadeep Plan II and Jeevan Asha Plan II. The General Insurance Corporation offers Personal Accident policy, Jan Arogya policy, Raj Rajeshwari policy, Mediclaim policy, Overseas Mediclaim policy, Cancer Insurance policy, Bhavishya Arogya policy and Dreaded Disease policy (Srivastava 1999 as quoted in Bhat R & Malvankar D, 2000) Of the various schemes offered, Mediclaim is the main product of the GIC. The Medical Insurance Scheme or Mediclaim was introduced in November 1986 and it covers individuals and groups with persons aged 5 – 80 yrs. Children (3 months – 5 yrs) are covered with their parents. This scheme provides for reimbursement of medical expenses (now offers cashless scheme) by an individual towards hospitalization and domiciliary hospitalization as per the sum insured. There are exclusions and pre-existing disease clauses. Premiums are calculated based on age and the sum insured, which in turn varies from Rs 15 000 to Rs 5 00 000. In 1995/96 about half a million Mediclaim policies were issued with about 1.8 million beneficiaries (Krause Patrick 2000). The coverage for the year 2000-01 was around 7.2 million. Another scheme, namely the Jan Arogya Bima policy specifically targets the poor population groups. It also covers reimbursement of hospitalization costs up to Rs 5 000 annually for an individual premium of Rs 100 a year. The same exclusion mechanisms apply for this scheme as those under the Mediclaim policy. A family discount of 30% is granted, but there is no group discount or agent commission. However, like the Mediclaim, this policy too has had only limited success. The Jan Arogya Bima Scheme had only covered 400 000 individuals by 1997. The year 1999 marked the beginning of a new era for health insurance in the Indian context. With the passing of the Insurance Regulatory Development Authority Bill (IRDA) the insurance sector was opened to private and foreign participation, thereby paving the way for the entry of private health insurance companies. The Bill also facilitated the establishment of an authority to protect the interests of the insurance holders by regulating, promoting and ensuring orderly growth of the insurance industry. The bill allows foreign promoters to hold paid up capital of up to 26 percent in an Indian company and requires them to have a capital of Rs 100 crore along with a business plan to begin its operations.Currently, a few companies such as Bajaj Alliance, ICICI, Royal Sundaram, and Cholamandalam among others are offering health insurance schemes. The nature of schemes offered by these companies is described briefly.5 Bajaj Allianz: Bajaj Allianz offers three health insurance schemes namely, Health Guard, Critical Illness Policy and Hospital Cash Daily Allowance Policy. – The Health Guard scheme is available to those aged 5 to 75 years (not allowing entry for those over 55 years of age), with the sum assured ranging from Rs 100 0000 to 500 000. It offers cashless benefit and medical reimbursement for hospitalization expenses (preand post-hospitalization) at various hospitals across India (subject to exclusions and conditions). In case the member opts for hospitals besides the empanelled ones, the expenses incurred by him are reimbursed within 14 working days from submission of all the documents. While pre-existing diseases are excluded at the time of taking the policy, they are covered from the 5th year onwards if the policy is continuously renewed for four years and the same has been declared while taking the policy for the first time. Other discounts and benefits like tax exemption, health check-up at end of four claims free year, etc. can be availed of by the insured. – The Critical Illness policy pays benefits in case the insured is diagnosed as suffering from any of the listed critical events and survives for minimum of 30 days from the date of diagnosis. The illnesses covered include: first heart attack; Coronary artery disease requiring surgery: stroke; cancer; kidney failure; major organ transplantation; multiple sclerosis; surgery on aorta; primary pulmonary arterial hypertension, and paralysis. While exclusion clauses apply, premium rates are competitive and high-sum insurance can be opted for by the insured. – The Hospital Cash Daily Allowance Policy provides cash benefit for each and every completed day of hospitalization, due to sickness or accident. The amount payable per day is dependant on the selected scheme. Dependant spouse  and children (aged 3 months – 21years) can also be covered under the Policy. The benefits payable to the dependants are linked to that of insured. The Policy pays for a maximum single hospitalization period of 30 days and an overall hospitalization period of 30/60 completed days per policy period per person regardless of the number of confinements to hospital/nursing home per policy period. ICICI Lombard: ICICI Lombard offers Group Health Insurance Policy. This policy is available to those aged 5 – 80 years, (with children being covered with their parents) and is given to corporate bodies, institutions, and associations. The sum insured is minimum Rs 15 000/- and a maximum of Rs 500 000/-. The premium chargeable depends upon the age of the person and the sum insured selected. A slab wise group discount is admissible if the group size exceeds 100. The policy covers reimbursement of hospitalization expenses incurred for diseases contracted or injuries sustained in India. Medical expenses up to 30 days for Pre-hospitalization and up to 60 days for post-hospitalization are also admissible. Exclusion clauses apply. Moreover, favourable claims experience is recognized by discount and conversely, unfavourableclaims experience attracts loading on renewal premium. On payment of additional premium, the policy can be extended to cover maternity benefits, pre-existing diseases, and reimbursement of cost of health check-up after four consecutive claims-free years. Royal Sundaram Group: The Shakthi Health Shield policy offered by the Royal Sundaram group can be availed by members of the women’s group, their spouses and dependent children. No age limits apply. The premium for adults aged up to 45 years is Rs 125 per year, for those aged more than 45 years is Rs 175 per year. Children are covered at Rs 65 per year. Under this policy, hospital benefits up to Rs 7 000 per annum can be availed, with a limit per claim of Rs 5 000. Other benefits include maternity benefit of Rs 3 000 subject to waiting period of nine months after first enrolment and for first two children only. Exclusion clauses apply (Ranson K & Jowett M, 2003) Cholamandalam General Insurance: The benefits offered (in association with the Paramount Health Care, a re-insurer) in case of an illness or accident resulting in hospitalization, are cash-free hospitalization in more than 1  400 hospitals across India, reimbursement of the expenses during pre- hospitalization (60 days prior to hospitalization) and post- hospitalization (90 days after discharge) stages of treatment. Over 130 minor surgeries that require less than 24 hours hospitalization under day care procedure are also covered. Extra health covers like general health and eye examination, local ambulance service, hospital daily allowance, and 24 hours assistance can be availed of. Exclusion clauses apply. Employer-based schemes. Employers in both the public and private sector offers employer-based insurance schemes through their own employer-managed facilities by way of lump sum payments, reimbursement of employee’s health expenditure for outpatient care and hospitalization, fixed medical allowance, monthly or annual irrespective of actual expenses, or covering them under the group health insurance policy. The railways, defence and security forces, plantations sector and mining sector provide medical services and / or benefits to its own employees. The population coverage under these schemes is minimal, about 30-50 million people. 2.2 Insurance offered by NGOs / community-based health insurance: Community-based funds refer to schemes where members prepay a set amount each year for specified services. The premia are usually flat rate (not income-related) and therefore not progressive. Making profit is not the purpose of these funds, but rather improving access to services. Often there is a problem with adverse selection because of a large number of high-risk members, since premiums are not based on assessment of individual risk status. Exemptions may be adopted as a means of assisting the poor, but this will also have adverse effect on the ability of the insurance fund to meet the cost of benefits.6 Community-based schemes are typically targeted at poorer populations living in communities, in which they are involved in defining contribution level and collecting mechanisms, defining the content of the benefit package, and / or allocating the schemes, financial resources (International Labour Office Universities Programme 2002 as quoted in Ranson K & Acharya A, 2003). Such schemes are generally run by trust hospitals or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The benefits offered are mainly in terms of preventive care, though ambulatory and in-patient care is also covered. Such schemes tend to be financed through patient collection, government grants and donations. Increasingly in India, CBHI schemes are negotiating with the forprofit insurers for the purchase of custom designed group insurance policies. However, the coverage of such schemes is low, covering about 30-50 million (Bhat, 1999). A review by Bennett, Cresse et al. (as quoted in Ranson K & Acharya A, 2003) indicates that many community-based insurance schemes suffer from poor design and management, fail to include the poorest-of-thepoor, have low membership and require extensive financial support. Other issues relate to sustainability and replication of such schemes. Some examples of community-based health insurance schemes are discussed herein: Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), Gujarat: This scheme established in 1992, provides health, life and assets insurance to women working in the informal sector and their families. The enrolment in the year 2002 was 93 000. This scheme operates in collaboration with the National Insurance Company (NIC). Under SEWA’s most popular policy, a premium of Rs 85 per individual is paid by the woman for life, health and assets insurance. At an additional payment of Rs 55, her husband too can be covered. Rs 20 per member is then paid to the National Insurance Company (NIC) which provides coverage to a maximum of Rs 2 000 per person per year for hospitalization. After being hospitalized at a hospital of one’s choice (public or private), the insurance claim is submitted to SEWA. The responsibility for enrolment of members, for processing and approving of claims rests with SEWA. NIC in turn receives premiums from SEWA annually and pays them a lumpsum on a monthly basis for all claims reimbursed. The Action for Community Organization, Rehabilitation and Development (ACCORD): Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu was established in 1991. Around 13 000 Adivasis (tribals) are covered under a group policy purchased from New India Assurance. Another scheme located in Tamil Nadu is Kadamalai Kalanjia Vattara Sangam (KKVS): Madurai. This was established in 2000 and covers members of women’s self-help groups and their families. Its enrolment in 2002 was around 5 710, with the KKVS functioning as a third party insurer. The Voluntary Health Services (VHS): Chennai, Tamil Nadu was established in 1963. It offers sliding premium with free care to the poorest. The benefits include discounted rates on both outpatient and inpatient care, with the VHS functioning as both insurer and health care provider. In 1995, its membership was 124 715. However, this scheme suffers from low levels of cost recovery due to problems of adverse selection. 2.3 Social Insurance or mandatory health insurance schemes or government run schemes (namely the ESIS, CGHS): Social insurance is an earmarked fund set up by government with explicit benefits in return for payment. It is usually compulsory for certain groups in the population and the premiums are determined by income (and hence ability to pay) rather than related to health risk. The benefit packages are standardized and contributions are earmarked for spending on health services The government-run schemes include the Central Government Health Scheme (CGHS) and the Employees State Insurance Scheme (ESIS). Central Government Health Scheme (CGHS): Since 1954, all employees of the Central Government (present and retired); some autonomous and semi-government organizations, MPs, judges, freedom fighters and journalists are covered under the Central Government Health Scheme (CGHS). This scheme was designed to replace the cumbersome and expensive system of reimbursements (GOI, 1994). It aims at providing comprehensive medical care to the Central Government employees and the benefits offered include all outpatient facilities, and preventive and promotive care in dispensaries. Inpatient facilities in government hospitals and approved private hospitals are also covered. This scheme is mainly funded through Central Government funds, with premiums ranging from Rs 15 to Rs 150 per month based on salary scales. The coverage of this scheme has grown substantially with provision  for the non-allopathic systems of medicine as well as for allopathy. Beneficiaries at this moment are around 432 000, spread across 22 cities. The CGHS has been criticized from the point of view of quality and accessibility. Subscribers have complained of high out-of-pocket expenses due to slow reimbursement and incomplete coverage for private health care (as only 80% of cost is reimbursed if referral is made to private facility when such facilities are not available with the CGHS).7 Employee and State Insurance Scheme (ESIS): The enactment of the Employees State Insurance Act in 1948 led to formulation of the Employees State Insurance Scheme. This scheme provides protection to employees against loss of wages due to inability to work due to sickness, maternity, disability and death due to employment injury. It offers medical and cash benefits, preventive and promotive care and health education. Medical care is also provided to employees and their family members without fee for service. Originally, the ESIS scheme covered all power-using non-seasonal factories employing 10 or more people. Later, it was extended to cover employees working in all non-power using factories with 20 or more persons. While persons working in mines and plantations, or an organization offering health benefits as good as or better than ESIS, are specifically excluded. Service establishments like shops, hotels, restaurants, cinema houses, road transport and news papers printing are now covered. The monthly wage limit for enrolment in the ESIS is Rs. 6 500, with a prepayment contribution in the form of a payroll tax of 1.75% by employees, 4.75% of employees’ wages to be paid by the employers, and 12.5% of the total expenses are borne by the state governments. The number of beneficiaries is over 33 million spread over 620 ESI centres across states. Under the ESIS, there were 125 hospitals, 42 annexes and 1 450 dispensaries with over 23 000 beds facilities. The scheme is managed and financed by the Employees State Insurance Corporation (a public undertaking) through the state governments, with total expenditure of Rs 3 300 million or Rs 400/- per capita insured person. The ESIS programme has attracted considerable criticism. A report based on patient surveys conducted in Gujarat (Shariff, 1994 as quoted in Ellis R et a, 2000) found that over half of those covered did not seek care from ESIS facilities. Unsatisfactory nature of ESIS services, low quality drugs, long waiting periods, impudent behaviour of personnel, lack of interest or low interest  on part of employees and low awareness of ESI procedures, were some of the reasons cited.8 Chapter-3 Conclusion: The challenge for the Indian policy-makers is to find ways to improve upon the existing situation in the health sector and to make equitable, affordable and quality health care accessible to the population, especially the poor and the vulnerable sections of the society. It is in a way inevitable that the state reforms its public health delivery system and explores other social security options like health insurance. Implementing regulations would be one, but by no means the best mechanism to contain provider behaviour and costs. This can only be done by developing mechanisms where government and households can together pool their funds. This could be one way of controlling provider behaviour. There is an urgent need to document global and Indian experiences in social health insurance. Different financing options would need to be developed for different target groups. The wide differentials in the demographic, epidemiological status and the delivery capacity of health systems are a serious constraint to a nationally mandated health insurance system. Given the heterogeneity of different regions in India and the regional specifications, one would need to undertake pilot projects to gather more information about the population to be targeted under an insurance scheme and develop options for different population groups. Health policy-makers and health systems research institutions, in collaboration with economic policy study institutes, need to gather information about the prevailing disease burden at various geographical regions; to develop standard treatment guidelines, to undertake costing of health services for evolving benefit packages to determine the premium to be levied and subsidies to be given; and to map health care facilities available and the institutional mechanisms which need to be in place, for implementing health insurance schemes. Skillbuilding for the personnel involved, and capacity-building of  all the stakeholders involved, would be a critical component for ensuring the success of any health insurance programme. The success of any social insurance scheme would depend on its design, the implementation and monitoring mechanisms which would be set in place and it would also call for restructuring and reforming the health system, and developing the necessary prerequisites to ensure its success.

Friday, November 8, 2019

What to Read in March

What to Read in March Not sure what to read this month? Try these suggestions based on   authors born in the month of March! Robert Lowell (March 1, 1917-September 12, 1977): Robert Traill Spence Lowell IV was an American poet who inspired the confessional style of other poets such as Sylvia Plath. He won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and was a United States Poet Laureate. His own personal history and his family and friendships were important subjects in his poetry. Recommended: Life Studies (1959). Ralph Ellison: (March 1, 1914- April 16, 1994): Ralph Waldo Ellison was an American literary critic, scholar, and novelist. He won the National Book Award in 1953 served on The American Academy of Arts and Letters. Recommended: Invisible Man (1952). Elizabeth Barrett Browning: (March 6, 1806- June 29, 1861): Elizabeth Barrett was an important English Romantic poet. Many do not know that Brownings family was part-Creole and spent much time in Jamaica, where they owned sugar plantations (kept by slave labor). Elizabeth herself was highly educated and was vehemently opposed to slavery. Her later works are dominated by political and social themes. She met and married the poet Robert Browning after a long epistolary relationship. Recommended: Poems (1844) Garbriel Garcà ­a Mrquez (March 6, 1928-April 17, 2014): Gabriel Josà © de la Concordia Garcà ­a Mrquez was a Colombian author of plays, short stories, and novels. He is considered one of the most important writers of the twentieth-century, having won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1982. Garcia Marquez was also a journalist who criticized national and international politics, but he is best known for his fiction and magical realism. Recommended: One Hundred Years of Solitude (1967). Jack Kerouac: (March 12, 1922- October 21, 1969): Kerouac was a pioneering member of the 1950s Beat Generation. He originally went to college on a football scholarship, but upon moving to New York City he discovered Jazz and the Harlem scene, which would change his life, and the American literary landscape, forever.   Recommended: On the Road (1957). Louis L’Amour (March 22, 1908-June 10, 1988): Louis Dearborn grew up in North Dakota during the sunset years of the American frontier. His interactions with traveling cowboys, the great Northern Pacific Railroad, and the world of cattle ranching would shape his later fiction, as would the stories of his grandfather, who fought in civil and Indian wars. Recommended: The Daybreakers (1960). Flannery O’Connor (March 25, 1925-August 3, 1964): Mary Flannery  OConnor was an American writer. She flourished in the essay, short story and novel genres and was also a significant contributor to literary reviews and commentaries. Greatly inspired by her Roman Catholicism, her works often explored major themes of ethics and morality. She is one of the greatest Southern writers in American literature. Recommended: A Good Man Is Hard to Find (1955). Tennessee Williams: (March 26, 1911- February 25, 1983): Thomas Lanier Williams III is one of Americas greatest playwrights and an important presence in the history of homosexual writers. His works are heavily inspired by his own life, especially is unhappy family history. He had a great string of successful plays in the late 1940s, before shifting to a more experimental style which was not as well-received by audiences. Recommended: Suddenly, Last Summer (1958). Robert Frost: (March 26, 1874- Jauary 29, 1963): Robert Frost, perhaps Americas greatest and most successful poet, first explored a variety of careers, such as cobbler, editor, and teacher, before publishing his first poem (My Butterfly) in 1894. Frost spent some time living in England during the early 1900s, where he met such talents as Robert Graves and Ezra Pound. These experiences had a profound influence on his work. Recommended: North of Boston (1914). Anna Sewell (March 30, 1820- April 25, 1878): Anna Sewell is an English novelist, born into a Quaker family. When she was a girl, she severely injured both of her ankles, which confined her to crutches and limited walking for the rest of her life. Recommended: Black Beauty (1877). Other Notable Classic Writers Born in March: Theodore Seuss Geisel, Dr. Seuss (March 2, 1904-September 24, 1991)Tom Wolfe (March 2, 1931-  Ã‚  Ã‚   )Douglas Adams (March 11, 1952-May 11, 2001) Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879-April 18, 1955)John Updike (March 18, 1932-January 27, 2009)Philip Roth (March 19, 1933-  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   )Lawrence Ferlinghetti (March 24, 1919-  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ) Gloria Steinem (March 25, 1934-  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   )John Fowles (March 31, 1926-November 5, 2005)

Wednesday, November 6, 2019

Profile of beaches Essay Example

Profile of beaches Essay Example Profile of beaches Essay Profile of beaches Essay Introduction General Introduction The universe s coastlines, spliting the land from the sea, are geological environments which are alone in their composing and the physical procedure act uponing them. The bulk of these coastlines have beaches made up of loose deposits like crushed rock, sand, or clay that are continuously being acted upon by moving ridges, currents and air currents, redefining their form without break. Nevertheless, in malice of the assorted moving ridge climes that prevail around the universe and the difference in the coastline composing, the nature and behaviour of the beaches are often really similar. The air currents blowing over immense extents of oceans provide the necessary energy and impulse to moving ridges. This is accumulated energy is dispersed in the breaker zone and the breakage of moving ridges in this zone is mostly responsible for the formation of turbulency, which traps and suspends the deposits from the beach. Therefore the beach profile form is due to the action of moving ridges and currents at the shoreline. The moving ridges besides form nearshore currents that transport the suspended deposits alongshore or crossshore. Nearshore currents can travel tremendous measures of deposits along the shoreline and in the cross shore waies in volumes every bit big as 100s of 1000s of three-dimensional metres of sand per twelvemonth in some parts of the universe. Longshore currents are formed by moving ridges that break neither perpendicularly nor parallel to the shoreline and flow in the way comparable to the wave way. Many times, longshore current turns seaward to go rip current which carry deposit offshore. This motion of deposit is termed as the litteral impetus and the measure of deposit set in gesture along the seashore is the littoral conveyance. During a twelvemonth, wave environment alterations and so does the conveyance waies. But there is a dominant way of the deposit conveyance that prev ails at most coastlines. The way that is coinciding with this dominant conveyance way is known as downdrift and updrift is the opposite way. The cross shore conveyance is besides caused by moving ridge or air current induced average cross shore flows and is chiefly responsible for the presence of sand bars and other beach profile alterations. These profile alterations are normally slow, on the order of old ages in continuance or can happen quickly during storms, on the order of hours. The profile of beaches is one characteristic of coastal countries that are frequently studied and analysed. These cross subdivisions through coastlines give a better thought as to the alterations happening over clip at one point on the seashore, either in the form or size of a beach. The survey of a figure of profiles from the different points can garner informations about the motion of deposit along a seashore and to compare one country from another. Data collected can be plotted as a graph to bring forth the physical representative of the form of the beach and can besides be analysed statistically. Major beach eroding occurs during big storms. These storms besides stir the sand from the deeper deepnesss and convey it towards the breaker zone. However, some beaches have sound pumps with over capacity and are capable of self fix during bad times. But if this ego fix mechanism becomes damaged, beaches are more reactive to endure conditions and clime rhythms. Beach eroding of Westhampton Beach ( USA ) over a period of 40 old ages is shown in the diagram below. This tendency is about similar for img: Typical beach erosionmany beaches all over the universe. While promontories and drops erode, beaches are able to impede the action of moving ridges on them therefore doing themselves a formidable defence against the choler of the sea. Its constituents of ego fix are: ( 1 ) Drying of beach sand because of withdrawing tide and by air current and sunlight ; ( 2 ) Blowing of sand inland by sea air current ; ( 3 ) Storage of sand in the dunes. Therefore a beach is able to hive away sand and grow during favourable meteoric conditions. During bad conditions conditions, beaches erode and lie flatter. The ocean s degree was about 120 m lower than today as the expiration of the last ice age blocked in the mountain and the polar ice caps. At that clip the beaches were near to the boundary line of the Continental shelf. When the clime started warming, the sea degree rose and moved the beaches landwards along with its sand. The ocean s degree took some 4000 twelvemonth to lift and this procedure was over about 6000 old ages ago. Description of Mauritius Coastal Zone. Mauritius is a little island province covering 1865 km2 of land. It is situated at latitude 200 South and longitude 580 East, around 1,242 stat mis off the South East seashore of Africa. The coastline of Mauritius is 322 kilometer in length, is bordered by fringing coral reefs which confine a lagoon country of 243km2 and has the above 93 stat mis ( 150km ) of white flaxen beaches. The state is invariably air currents throughout the twelvemonth, except for short periods in summer months ( November to April ) when tropical storms approach the island. These air currents are stronger in winter ( May to October ) due to the presence of strong anticyclones go throughing near to Mauritius. The island besides has protected bays and composure lagunas which have enabled the development of fishing and touristry. Marine and coastal resources are one of the chief pillar to the national economic system. In 2000 the population of Mauritius was about 1.14 million and had a Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) of Rs101.7 billion ( Central Statistics Office, as reported in Halcrow 2003 ) . The touristry scheme ( Deloitte A ; Touche 2002 ) sees a growing from the existent 9,000 hotels suites to around 20,000 in 2020. The coastal zones have witnessed a rapid encouragement in development over the past old ages and have been extensively exploited for assorted activities. This is due to the enlargement in tourer reachings, lifting from 103000 in 1977 to 656450 in 2000. Coral sand remotion ( 800,000 tonnes/yr ) and sewage discharge in the lagunas mean that some beaches and lagunas have been badly impacted. Furthermore there is the absence of a proper planning with regard to coastal development and unequal enforcement have resulted in building of edifices everyplace and constructions such as breakwaters and br eakwaters along the seashore. Thus the coastal zone has become under terrible emphasis. Description of the 3 coastal sites chosen Blue Bay the bay with its nice deep blue colour in the sou-east of Mauritius. The colourss of the sea are improbably powerful and consist of a assortment of many different blues. The Blue Bay has a really nice public beach which is absolutely suited for swimming and loosen uping. Blue Bay, every bit good as the general country in the south and south-east is non so much touristically tapped. That is why the beach of Blue Bay is really quiet during the hebdomad. On weekends, nevertheless, one has the feeling that the half population of Mauritus pilgrims journeies here to pass some nice free yearss at seaboard. They are besides really quiet at the weekends. Blue Bay is peculiarly celebrated for its snorkeling trips. Since 1997, a 353-hectare country which is located in the sea merely in forepart of the public beach is appointed as the first and until now the lone Marine Park in Mauritius. The grounds for the foundation are the unusual and alone coral gardens, which are situated here. The marine ecosystem provides a rare beauty with its many different species of vegetations and zoologies. These are particularly the corals, which are in an improbably good status. Overall a figure of approximately 72 different corals and 32 different species of fishes are founded in this country. The corals are sometimes even up to 800 old ages old. The public beach of St Felix is another beautiful beach of Mauritius. St. Felix is located besides in the South between the towns of Belle Ombre and Soulliac. Actually St Felix has even two public beaches ; nevertheless, the 2nd beach from the way of Le Morne is much more beautiful. To acquire at that place you have to go on the route after the way mark to the public beach of St Felix a small spot until you reach a traffic circle where you have to take the 3rd issue. The beach is fantastic, the exceptionally white sand, which flows into the turquoise viridity of the Indian Ocean of Mauritius, gives a fantastic contrast to the verdant trees of the back land. The beach of St Felix is really lonely and offers an first-class chance to chill out and loosen up. However, a little disadvantage from the beach of St Felix in Mauritius is that bathing is debatable. First the land of the laguna is covered with corals in which one or the other fish from the household of the extremely toxic rock fishes can be founded. Second the current can be rather strong and should non be sneezed. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Purpose The purpose of this survey is to give an history of the spacial and temporal alterations in beach profile informations for the country of St Felix, Gris Gris and Blue Bay and to function as a baseline for farther research on coastal eroding for these 3 beaches. Aims This independent survey has two chief aims: To turn out what alterations in beach profile form has occurred on a spacial graduated table, along the length of St Felix, Gris Gris and Blue Bay and to bring forth a description study of these alterations. To determine what alterations in St Felix, Gris Gris and Blue Bay beach profile s form have occurred on a temporal graduated table and to supply a longitudinal and descriptive study of these alterations. Methodology The Emery board method which was developed by the celebrated coastal scientist, K.O Ernery, is the simplest technique to mensurate a beach profile. The setup consists of two bets which are connected by a rope of known length ( 5 M or 10 M ) as shown in figure 1.4 This length initiates the measurings interval along the profile for single information points. Each interest has a measurement graduated table running from 0 at the top, down to the underside. When the beach is inclining downwards towards the sea, the perceiver positions across the top of the interest confronting the sea to the degree of the skyline and calculates the distance ( a ) from the top of the board lying towards the land to the position afforded. On the contrary, if the beach is inclining upward off from the shore, so ( a ) is determined on the seaward board and the screening is with the skyline of the inland board. The deliberate distance ( a ) must be equal to the distance ( B ) even if the beach has either ris en or dropped within the horizontal distance between the bets ( Komar, 1998 ) . This attack has the advantages of holding cheap and light equipment which can be easy transported to hanker study sites for rapid studies, and provides really accurate informations for beach profiles. Fieldwork After holding selected the site for the beach profile measuring when geting at the beach, the first work is to tag a baseline ( a line in the sand which runs analogue to the shoreline ) . Measurement of beach profile ( lifts ) will be carried out along the baseline at specific intervals. These intervals will be labeled as the horizontal distance ( along the coastline ) ( ten ) . A landward surveyor, a offshore surveyor and a information recording equipment will be required to transport out the study. The landward surveyor is appointed for keeping the landward board, sing over the offshore board towards the skyline and shouting out the measuring ( centimeter ) to the informations recording equipment. The latter must observe down these measurings in an organized mode which includes the horizontal distance ( x ) of lift ( a ) and a cumulative alteration in all lifts for one profile measuring. The offshore board and do certain that the rope is flat between the 2 bets when extended by traveling the cringle up or down. Cross-shore information points of lifts are measured at the specific sampling intervals determined by the length of the rope when to the full extended, get downing at the landward extent of the base. If the beach is broad, more than 5 cross shore informations points should be collected. Datas Analysis A cumulative perpendicular lifts ( y-axis ) v/s the horizontal place ( x-axis ) must be plotted utilizing the beach profiles informations recorded. The existent beach profile will be revealed. If the horizontal and perpendicular graduated tables are equal, the beach profile may non look to be thrilling ( about like a horizontal line ) . If that is the instance, a technique called vertical hyperbole is used, ( to change perpendicular graduated table by a known factor e.g a factor of 5 or 10 ) . This technique is chiefly used by geographers, geologists and map makers. LITERATURE REVIEW A immense sum of informations refering several facets of beach profile informations exists around the universe. Sing measuring of beach profiles, Delgado and Lloyd ( 2004 ) elaborated one of the simplest technique of mensurating beach profiles in their paper ; explicating the method, and its pros and cons. The set-up is light and simple, can be conducted by one individual entirely, does non necessitate sighting of the skyline and can run in different conditions conditions. The lone equipment needed is a horizontal and perpendicular rod attached sheer to each other and, a graduated standing pole from which measurings can be taken. Besides systematic mistakes ( somewhat bent rods ) can be reduced by standardization on a level surface. This technique has been used in assorted locations and consequences have shown that mistakes associated with the Delgado and Lloyd method have an norm of 0.024m with respects to 50 m long profiles and a preciseness of 0.014 m when used by a individual pro filer. When compared to the usage of electronic methods ( transits ) to transport out the same study, the DL method shows a preciseness of 99.76 % . In malice of indicating out the truth of this method with regard to the beginnings of instrumented mistakes, Emery ( 1961 ) did non take into history the influence of the belongingss of different deposit surfaces on his method. Krause G ( 2004 ) showed that this consequence can non be disregarded as it can better the overall truth of the information. Furthermore it was proved that Emery method is sensitive to systematic mistakes introduced ( little divergences between the graduated tables of the 2 measuring poles ) . In order to accomplish 90 % truth with mistakes introduced, the minimal beach incline should non drop below 125 centimeter for a 100 m long profile. Increased trying spacing from 2 m to 10 m in order to speed up the study and cut down mistakes was deemed inacceptable if sampling intervals is in the order of hebdomads or months. Cooper et Al ( 2000 ) laid accent on the fact that coastal monitoring informations sets should be up-to-date and accurate because these informati ons will enable a better designation and apprehension of alterations happening at the shoreline. As shown above, the Emery method holds both because it is accurate on a dynamic beach. With added alterations to the original method, this technique is best suited for a good beach profile measuring.