Immigration Is A Major Controversial Issue - 1471 Words

Roman Numeral III Signature Assignment GOVT 2305 MW 8:00-9:20 Danielle Scheurmann 5-4-2015 Immigration is a major controversial issue in today’s government. Some important matters include national security, the economic weight, escalation in drug and weapons trafficking, and human trafficking. Immigration is both beneficial and detrimental to many people, and our country. In my opinion the foremost concern regarding Immigration is National Security. â€Å"More than 10 million undocumented aliens currently reside in the U.S., and that population is growing by 700,000 per year† (Johnson and Kane). This points to a serious problem in our Nation’s security. Our borders are perilously vulnerable. Illegal immigrants flock to the United States in search of better jobs and healthier lifestyles. They hope to live the â€Å"American Dream†. But that dream comes at a costly price. So many undocumented aliens creates an overwhelming security dilemma. â€Å"Even though they pose no direct security threat, the presence of millions of undocumented migrants di storts the law, distracts resources, and effectively creates a cover for terrorists and criminals† (Johnson and Kane). Unfortunately, efforts to decrease the influx of immigrants only encourages these people to move underground. It’s scarily easy for an under documented dweller to simply disappear. This contributes to a society of transgressions, as living illegally promotes crime in all parts of life. Another dilemma of Immigration isShow MoreRelatedThe Issue Of Immigration And Gay Rights1034 Words   |  5 Pagesas well as throughout the world is immigration and gay rights. Today, many immigration and gay rights issues have arisen in numerous cases and have had controversial sides and opinions The issue of immigration has been a controversial topic between the Democratic and Republican parties. The idea of illegal immigrants having the choice to become a legal resident is a major distinction between the two parties. In general, Democrats are seen to favor immigration to the United States. The DemocraticRead MoreA Rogerian Analysis of the Debate over Arizonas Immigration Law1493 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿A Rogerian Analysis of the Debate over Arizonas Immigration Law 1. An introduction to the problem and a demonstration that the opponents position is understood. Americas illegal immigration problem is one of the most remarkable failures of the U.S. federal government. Undocumented illegal immigrants, many in our very own neighborhoods, are able evade the reach of our nations laws and regulations with remarkable ease. This is a huge source of anxiety for many tax-paying Americans, who perceiveRead MoreHealthcare Of Current Undocumented Refugees And Immigrants Of The Early Twentieth Century1410 Words   |  6 PagesHealthcare of Current Undocumented Refugees and Immigrants of the Early Twentieth Century Immigration has remained a long-standing, controversial topic in this country with strong public opinions as well as many political disputes over this issue. Laws have been created over time, which support immigration and refugee resettlement, however, these laws have been met with much resistance throughout history. According to the Department of Homeland Security (2012), the number of illegal immigrants andRead MoreImmigration Is The Act Of Movement Of The United States1501 Words   |  7 PagesImmigration is the act of movement of personalities from their country of origin to another one for better lives, education, visitations, job opportunities and also the undertaking of business transactions amongst nations that can either be legal or illegally inclined. The United States being a land of opportunity and a superpower has made the nation one of the most admired countries in the globe (Laidler and Turek, 2014). Its economy and robust foreign policies have catapulted the interest s of manyRead MoreThe Immigration System Of The United States1201 Words   |  5 PagesHowever, the immigration system leaves many who are not among the lucky finding their way legally across the border left with no choice but to either stay put, or illegally come into United States territory. With the increase of immigration around the world, and the upcoming political debates, this issue has become more controversial as time goes on. Along with all of the attention with the issue comes many different positions and viewpoints toward the subject. There is that of major emphasis on borderRead MoreThe Issue Of Immigration Is The United States For Many Years And Its Views On The Matter1450 Words   |  6 Pagesone of his recent presidential candidate speeches, Donald Trump addresses immigration and his views on the matter. After hearing him address this very controversial topic I became very interested. Immigration has been a major issue in the United States for many years and it com es with its own set of positive and negative consequences. Many people hold different stances on whether or not illegal immigration is actually an issue or not. In his speech, Donald Trump bluntly lets America know how he feelsRead MoreCause/Effect of immigration reform971 Words   |  4 Pagesto mind when you think of immigration? What is the United States’ current Immigration Policy? Would you even think that it is considered to be one of the most debatable topics today? Nowadays, many people decide to immigrate to have a better life for themselves and their families. Immigration reform, as it has been called, had been tried during the past years by our very own Congress. Obviously, administrations efforts failed because, currently, illegal immigration is still a platform. Why wouldRead MoreThe Effects Of Immigration On The Middle East1558 Words   |  7 Pagesto better understand the effects of immigration on both societies. One way to measure the general political reaction of each country towards the influx of immigrants. Though such data is constrained by temporal boundaries, a blanket understanding can be gleamed from surveys taken in nations during different periods. Further, in both countries, support for the importance of mainstream right-wing strategies has exacerbated the politicization of the immigrant issue. A survey asking identical questionsRead MoreThe Evolution And Relevance Of Immigration1510 Words   |  7 Pages The Evolution of Immigration: The evolution and relevance of Immigration in the United States. †Another way of indicating the importance of immigration to America is to point out that every American who ever lived, with the exception of one group, was an immigrant himself or a descendent of immigrants,†(Kennedy, 2). The United States is a nation of immigrants. There are, however, many Americans who are not accepting of the fact that immigrants were the reason why this country is able to haveRead MoreIllegal Immigration And The United States1126 Words   |  5 PagesIllegal Immigration Illegal immigration, according to an online dictionary is, â€Å"an alien (non-citizen) who has entered the United States without government permission or stayed beyond the termination date of a visa† (thefreedictionary.com). This issue has been a controversial and divisive topic throughout the world. Illegal immigration is a serious threat to national security. Lack of proper immigration can cause harmful consequences, and while there is much debate over what to do with the many

Otitis Media Essay - 1237 Words

Otitis media, otherwise known as an ear infection, is a very common occurrence in children seven months up to fifteen years of age. Specifically, this type of ear infection is categorized as an inflammation of the middle ear, and subcategorized into either acute otitis or chronic otitis media. It begins with a bacterial or viral infection from the throat that spreads into the ear, causing a fluid backup in the middle part of the ear. â€Å"It is estimated that, by the time they reach two years of age, all the children in the United States currently under that age will have had a total of 9.3 million episodes of acute otitis media, and that approximately 17 percent of children have three or more episodes during a six-month period (Berman 1995).†¦show more content†¦Predisposing agents that can lead to higher risk are colds, upper respiratory infections, exposure to air irritants (such as tobacco smoke), and children who have down syndrome or cleft palate. Bacterial pathogens that are common be the eight-five percent of the causation to otitis media can range from streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus), nontypable hemophilus influenzae, pseudomonas, and moraxella. However, it is much easier to contract an ear infection than spread it, and although it is the child is suffering from the pathology the most, it also causes parents to have greater anxiety and stress as well as disrupt average work and school cycles in daily living. Symptoms and signs of otitis media can range from a combination of earaches, fever, and fussiness in small children. Fluid buildup known as middle-ear effusion due to otitis media can cause temporary hearing loss, and the fluid buildup in the ear can leak into the ear canal. Acute infections of otitis media differ from chronic because they typically are short-lasting with a rapid onset. Symptoms exhibited can range from vomiting, fever, pain, loss of hearing, inflammation of the tympanic membrane, and often are a result from viral upper respiratory infections. Although over diagnosed, there are certain methods to distinguish Acute Otitis Media (AOM); â€Å"theShow MoreRelatedManagement of Acute Otitis Media Essay1319 Words   |  6 PagesAcute Otitis Media (AOM), inflammation or infection of the middle ear, is an illness most parents have had experience with. Countless hours of lost sleep and worry secondary to their child’s pain and distress can keep even the most seasoned parents awake at night. Before the age of 36 months, 83% of children will experience 1 or more ear infections and AOM is the most common reason for office visits of preschoolers in the United States (Zhou, Shefer, Kong Nuorti, 2008). The graphic below servesRead MoreOtitis Media with Effusion Essay1608 Words   |  7 Pages Otitis Media with Effusion (OME) can be defined as, â€Å"The presence of fluid in the middle ear without signs or symptoms of acute ear infection† (Pediatrics, 2004). It can be said that OME is an invisible disorder, as there are no immediate signs or symptoms of an acute ear infection such as ear pain, fever, or displeasure (Williamson, 2007). However, OME can have very significant consequences in the life of a child. Early identification and monitoring of OME can combat against possible speech andRead MoreDiseases: Otitis Media with Effusion Essay2207 Words   |  9 PagesOtitis media with Effusion (OME) The Ear The ear is made up of an outer (external), middle and inner ear. The outer and middle ear is mainly involved in transmitting sounds to the inner ear where that sound is processed. The first step in this process involves sound waves entering the external auditory canal and passing the tympanic membrane (otherwise known as the eardrum- this separates the outer ear from the middle ear)( Vander A, Sherman J, Luciano D, 2001). As small air molecules (sound) passesRead MoreEssay about Ebt1 Task 2 Wgu1378 Words   |  6 PagesResearch Integration EBT1 Task 2 Types of Sources of Evidence/Appropriateness/Classifications The article from the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) that addresses acute otitis media (AOM) is a filtered resource. This article is appropriate for use in nursing practice as it establishes diagnosis and management guidelines for the treatment of AOM. In addition the article recommends treatment options for the symptoms of AOM and addressesRead MoreThe Effects Of Otitis Media On Children818 Words   |  4 Pagesrestorative finding from a doctor. OTITIS MEDIA The most widely recognized reason for listening to misfortune in kids is otitis media, the restorative term for a center ear disease or aggravation of the center ear. This condition can happen in one or both ears and basically influences kids because of the state of the youthful Eustachian tube (and is the most incessant finding for kids going to a doctor). At the point when left undiscovered and untreated, otitis media can prompt contamination of theRead MoreAntibiotics For Acute Respiratory Infections1219 Words   |  5 PagesReview Manager (RevMan) 5.2 to analyze data. Although some studies prevented them from performing meta-analyses due to insufficient data or heterogeneity, they were able to statistically analyze the outcomes of fever for sore throat, earache for otitis media, and patient satisfaction. A few forest plots are listed in this review. The delayed antibiotic strategy is compared to immediate and no antibiotics, depending on the available data. The statistical results were accompanied by the odds ratioRead MoreSurgical Repair Or Reconstruct The Tympanic Membrane With A Suitable Graft Material Essay1300 Words   |  6 Pagesperforation is medium size (25-50% of drum surface area). 3) Present for at least 6 months. 4) Without evidence of active chronic otitis media, cholesteatoma or retraction pocket formation. Exclusion criteria 1) marginal perforations. 2) Large size or total perforation more than two quadrant. 3) Present for less than 6 months. 4) Evidence of active chronic otitis media, cholesteatoma or retraction pocket formation. II. Operational design: This study is a prospective randomized comparative studyRead MoreEar Infection Symptoms : True Explanation, Diagnosis And Treatment Essay1081 Words   |  5 PagesPinterest Otitis, the medical term for ear infection, does not sound threatening to a lot of people. However, when the ear gets infected, ear infection symptoms can cause enough discomfort that can compel a person to seek immediate medical attention. The human ear anatomy has three basic parts, each with unique functions: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. Categorizing each ear infection and their corresponding clinical manifestations are dependent on the affected part. Otitis ExternaRead MoreThe Role Of Antibiotics As Treatment For Australian Indigenous Children With Om1615 Words   |  7 PagesOtitis media (OM) remains to be a major health concern in Australia, with an inexcusably substantial disparity in the severity and incidence of otitis media, of all its forms, between Indigenous and non-Indigenous child populations. Specifically, children in Indigenous communities suffer from chronic suppurative otitis media at rates that far surpasses the 4% threshold that defines a massive public health concern (WHO, 1996). Currently, the first line of treatment for OM is the use of antibioticsRead MoreEvidence Based Practice For Pediatric Patients1588 Words   |  7 Pagesantibiotics than any other age group. The most common reason for prescribing antibiotics in children is for treatment Acute Otitis Media. Typically many unnecessary and serous side effects may occur in contribution to overprescribing antibiotics for non severe acute otitis media. In do ing so, the risk of developing antibiotic resistant bacteria increases greatly. Diagnosing acute otitis media requires three criteria: presence of middle rare effusion, acute onset of signs and symptoms, and signs and symptoms

Night World Dark Angel Chapter 5 Free Essays

Actually, it wasn’t the light she noticed first. It was an eerie feeling that some†¦ presence was in her room with her. She’d had the feeling before, waking up to feel that something had just left, maybe even in the instant it had taken her to open her eyes. We will write a custom essay sample on Night World : Dark Angel Chapter 5 or any similar topic only for you Order Now And that while asleep, she’d been on the verge of some great discovery about the world, something that was lost as soon as she woke. But tonight, the feeling stayed. And as she stared around the room, feeling dazed and stupid and leaden, she slowly realized that the light was wrong. She’d forgotten to close the curtains, and moonlight was streaming into the room. It had the thin blue translucence of new snow. But in one corner of Gillian’s room, by the gilded Italian chest of drawers, the light seemed to have pooled. Coalesced. Concentrated. As if reflecting off a mirror. There wasn’t any mirror. Gillian sat up slowly. Her sinuses were stuffed up and her eyes felt like hard-boiled eggs. She breathed through her mouth and tried to make sense of what was in the corner. It looked like †¦ a pillar. A misty pillar of light. And instead of fading as she woke up, it seemed to be getting brighter. An ache had taken hold of Gillian’s throat. The light was so beautiful†¦ and almost familiar. It reminded her of the tunnel and the meadow and †¦ Oh. She knew now. It was different to be seeing this when she wasn’t dead. Then, she’d accepted strange things the way you accept them in dreams, without ordinary logic or disbelief interfering. But now she stared as the light got brighter and brighter, and felt her whole skin tingling and tears pooling in her eyes. She could hardly breathe. She didn’t know what to do. How do you greet an angel in the ordinary world? The light continued to get brighter, just as it had in the meadow. And now she could see the shape in it, walking toward her and rushing at the same time. Still brighter-dazzling and pulsating-until she had to shut her eyes and saw red and gold after images like shooting stars. When she squinted her eyes back open, he was there. Awe caught at Gillian’s throat again. He was so beautiful that it was frightening. Face pale, with traces of the light still lingering in his features. Hair like filaments of gold. Strong shoulders, tall but graceful body, every line pure and proud and different from any human. He looked more different now than he had in the meadow. Against the drab and ordinary background of Gillian’s room, he burned like a torch. Gillian slid off her bed to kneel on the floor. It was an automatic reflex. â€Å"Don’t do that.† The voice was like silver fire. And then-it changed. Became somehow more ordinary, like a normal human voice. â€Å"Here, does this help?† Gillian, staring at the carpet, saw the light that was glinting off a stray safety pin fade a bit. When she tilted her eyes up, the angel looked more ordinary, too. Not as luminous. More like just an impossibly beautiful teenage guy. â€Å"I don’t want to scare you,† he said. He smiled. â€Å"Yeah,† Gillian whispered. It was all she could get out. â€Å"Are you scared?† â€Å"Yeah.† The angel made a frustrated circling motion with one arm. â€Å"I can go through all the gobbledygook: be not afraid, I mean you no harm, all that-but it’s such a waste of time, don’t you think?† He peered at her. â€Å"Aw, come on, kid, you died earlier today. Yesterday. This isn’t really all that strange in comparison. You can deal.† â€Å"Yeah.† Gillian blinked. â€Å"Yeah,† she said with more conviction, nodding. â€Å"Take a deep breath, get up-â€Å" â€Å"Yeah.† â€Å"-say something different†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Gillian got up. She perched on the edge of her bed. He was right, she could deal. So it hadn’t been a dream. She had really died, and there really were angels, and now one was in the room with her, looking almost solid except at the edges. And he had come to †¦ â€Å"Why did you come here?† she said. He made a noise that, if he hadn’t been an angel, Gillian would have called a snort. â€Å"You don’t think I ever really left, do you?† he said chidingly. â€Å"I mean, think about it. How did you manage to recover from freezing without even needing to go to the hospital? You were in severe hypothermia, you know. The worst. You were facing pulmonary edema, ventricular fibrillation, the loss of a few of your bits†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He wiggled his fingers and waggled his feet. That was when Gillian realized he was standing several inches off the floor. â€Å"You were in bad shape, kid. But you got out of it without even frostbite.† Gillian looked down at her own ten pink fingers. They were tinglingly over-sensitive, but she didn’t have even one blood blister. â€Å"You saved me.† He gave a half grin and looked sheepish. â€Å"Well, it’s my job.† â€Å"To help people.† â€Å"To help you.† A barely acknowledged hope was forming in Gillian’s mind. He never really left her; it was his job to help her. That sounded like†¦ Could he be †¦ Oh, God, no, it was too corny. Not to mention presumptuous. He was looking sheepish again. â€Å"Yeah. I don’t know how to put it, either. But it is true, actually. Did you know that most people think they have one even when they don’t? Somebody did a poll, and ‘most people have an inner certainty that there is some particular, individual spirit watching over them.’ The New Agers call us spirit guides. The Hawaiians call us aumakua†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"You’re a guardian angel,† Gillian whispered. â€Å"Yeah. Your guardian angel. And I’m here to help you find your heart’s desire.† â€Å"I-† Gillian’s throat dosed. It was too much to believe. She wasn’t worthy. She should have been a better person so that she would deserve some of the happiness that suddenly spread out in front of her. But then a cold feeling of reality set in. She wasn’t a better person, and although she was sure enlightenment and whatever else an angel thought your heart’s desire was, was terrific, well †¦ in her case†¦ She swallowed. â€Å"Look,† she said grimly. â€Å"The things I need help with-well, they’re not exactly the kinds of things angels are likely to know about.† â€Å"Heh.† He grinned. He leaned over in a position that would have unbalanced an ordinary person and waved an imaginary something over her head. â€Å"You shall go to the ball, Cinderella.† A wand. Gillian looked at him. â€Å"Now you’re my fairy godmother?† â€Å"Yeah. But watch the sarcasm, kid.† He changed to a floating position, his arms clasping his knees, and looked her dead in the eye. â€Å"How about if I say I know your heart’s desire is for David Blackburn to fall madly in love with you and for everyone at school to think you’re totally hot?† Heat swept up Gillian’s face. Her heart was beating out the slow, hard thumps of embarrassment- and excitement. When he said it out loud like that, it sounded extremely shallow†¦ and extremely, extremely desirable. â€Å"And you could help with that?† she choked out. â€Å"Believe it or not, Ripley.† â€Å"But you’re an angel.† He templed his fingers. â€Å"The paths to enlightenment are many. Grasshopper. Grasshopper? Maybe I should call you Dragonfly. You are sort of iridescent. There’re lots of other insects, but Dung-Beetle sounds sort of insulting. †¦Ã¢â‚¬  I’ve got a guardian angel who sounds like Robin Williams, Gillian thought. It was wonderful. She started to giggle uncontrollably, on the edge of tears. â€Å"Of course, there’s a condition,† the angel said, dropping his fingers. He looked at her seriously. His eyes were like the violet-blue at the bottom of a flame. Gillian gulped, took a scared breath. â€Å"What?† â€Å"You have to trust me.† â€Å"That’s it?† â€Å"Sometimes it won’t be so easy.† â€Å"Look.† Gillian laughed, gulped again, steadied herself. She looked away from his eyes, focusing on the graceful body that was floating in midair. â€Å"Look, after all I’ve seen†¦ after you saved my life-and my bits †¦ how could I not trust you?† She said it again quietly. â€Å"How could I ever not trust you?† He nodded. Winked. â€Å"Okay,† he said. â€Å"Let’s prove it.† â€Å"Huh?† Slowly the feeling of awed incredulity was fading. It was beginning to seem almost normal to talk to this magical being. â€Å"Let’s prove it. Get some scissors.† â€Å"Scissors?† Gillian stared at the angel. He stared back. â€Å"I don’t even know where any scissors are.† â€Å"Drawer to the left of the silverware drawer in the kitchen. A big sharp pair.† He grinned like Little Red Riding Hood’s grandmother. Gillian wasn’t afraid. She didn’t decide not to be, she simply wasn’t. â€Å"Okay,† she said and went down to get the scissors. The angel went with her, floating just behind her shoulder. At the bottom of the stairs were two Abyssinian cats, curled up head to toe like the Yin-Yang symbol. They were fast asleep. Gillian nudged one gently with one toe, and it opened sleepy crescents of eyes. And then it was off like a flash-both cats were. Streaking down the side hall, falling over each other, skidding on the hardwood floor. Gillian watched with her mouth open. â€Å"Balaam’s ass,† the angel said wisely. â€Å"I beg your pardon?† For a moment Gillian thought she was being insulted. â€Å"I mean, animals can see us.† â€Å"But they were scared. All their fur-I’ve never seen them like that before.† â€Å"Well, they may not understand what I am. It happens sometimes. Come on, let’s get the scissors.† Gillian stared down the side hall for a moment, then obeyed. â€Å"Now what?† she said as she brought the scissors back to her room. â€Å"Go in the bathroom.† Gillian went into the little bathroom that adjoined her bedroom and flicked on the light. She licked dry lips. â€Å"And now?† she said, trying to sound flippant. â€Å"Do I cut off a finger?† â€Å"No. Just your hair.† In the mirror over the sink, Gillian saw her own jaw drop. She couldn’t see the angel, though, so she turned around. â€Å"Cut my hair? Off?† â€Å"Off. You hide behind it too much. You have to show the world that you’re not hiding anymore.† â€Å"But-† Gillian raised protective hands, looking back in the mirror. She saw herself, pale, delicate boned, with eyes like wood violets-peering out from a curtain of hair. So maybe he had a point. But to go into the world naked, without anything to duck behind, with her face exposed†¦ â€Å"You said you trusted me,† the angel said quietly. Gillian chanced a look at him. His face was stem and there was something in his eyes that almost scared her. Something unknowable and cold, as if he were withdrawing from her. â€Å"It’s the way to prove yourself,† he said. â€Å"It’s like taking a vow. If you can do this part, you’re brave enough to do what it takes to get your heart’s desire.† He paused deliberately. â€Å"But, of course, if you’re not brave enough, if you want me to go away †¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"No,† Gillian said. Most of what he was saying made sense, and as for what she didn’t understand-well, she would have to have faith. I can do this. To show that she was serious, she took the open scissors, bracketed the pale blond curtain at a level with her ear, and squeezed them shut. Her hair just folded around the scissors. â€Å"Okay.† The angel was laughing. â€Å"Hold onto the hair at the bottom and pull. And try less hair.† He sounded like himself again: warm and teasing and loving-helpful. Gillian let out her breath, gave a wobbly smile, and devoted herself to the horrible and fascinating business of cutting off long blond chunks. When she was done, she had a silky blond cap. Short. It was shorter than Amy’s hair, almost as short as J.Z. Oberlin’s hair, the girl at school who worked as a model and looked like a Calvin Klein ad. It was really short. â€Å"Look in the mirror,† the angel said, although Gillian was already looking. â€Å"What do you see?† â€Å"Somebody with a bad haircut?† â€Å"Wrong. You see somebody who’s brave. Strong. Out there. Unique. Individualist. And, incidentally, gorgeous.† â€Å"Oh, please.† But she did look different. Under the ragged St. Joan bob, her cheekbones seemed to stand out more; she looked older, more sophisticated. And there was color in her cheeks. â€Å"But it’s still all uneven.† â€Å"We can get it smoothed out tomorrow. The important thing is that you took the first step yourself. By the way, you’d better learn to stop blushing. A girl as beautiful as you has to get used to compliments.† â€Å"You’re a funny kind of angel.† â€Å"I told you, it’s part of the job. Now let’s see what you’ve got in your closet.† An hour later, Gillian was in bed again. This time, under the covers. She was tired, dazed, and very happy. â€Å"Sleep fast,† the angel said. â€Å"You’ve got a big day tomorrow.† â€Å"Yes. But wait.† Gillian tried to keep her eyes open. â€Å"There were some things I forgot to ask you.† â€Å"Ask.† â€Å"That crying I heard in the woods-the reason I went in. Was it a kid? And are they okay?† There was a brief pause before he answered. â€Å"That information is classified. But don’t worry,† he added. â€Å"Nobody’s hurt-now.† Gillian opened one eye at him, but it was dear he wasn’t going to say any more. â€Å"Okay,† she said reluctantly. â€Å"And the other thing was-I still don’t know what to call you.† â€Å"I told you. Angel.† Gillian smiled, and was immediately struck by a jaw-cracking yawn. â€Å"Okay. Angel.† She opened her eyes again. â€Å"Wait. One more thing†¦Ã¢â‚¬  But she couldn’t think of it. There had been some other mystery she’d wanted to ask about, something that had to do with Tanya, with Tanya and blood. But she couldn’t summon it up. Oh, well. She’d remember later. â€Å"I just wanted to say-thank you.† He snorted. â€Å"You can say it anytime. Get this through your head, kid: I’m not going anywhere. I’ll be here tomorrow morning.† He began to hum a Blind Melon song. † I’ll always be there when you wake†¦ .’ Yeah, yeah, yeah.† Gillian felt warm, protected†¦ loved. She fell asleep smiling. The next morning she woke early and spent a long time in the bathroom. She came down the stairs feeling self-conscious and lightheaded-literally. With her hair gone her neck felt as if it were floating. She braced herself as she walked into the kitchen. Neither of her parents was there, even though her father was usually having breakfast by now. Instead, a girl with dark hair was sitting at the kitchen table, bent closely over a calculus textbook. â€Å"Amy!† Amy glanced up and blinked. She squinted, blinked again, then jumped up, standing an inch taller than Gillian. She moved forward, her eyes huge. Then she screamed. How to cite Night World : Dark Angel Chapter 5, Essay examples

Strategic Management and Professional Development Plan

Question: Discuss about the Professional Development Plan. Answer: Introduction: Professional development plan reflects specific path that individuals develop for fulfilling all the professional objectives. Individuals generally develop professional plan based on their knowledge and skills so that the objectives can be fulfilled in an appropriate way. Many studies have also highlighted the significance of aligning professional development plan with organizational design for making realistic goals (Zakarevi?ius and Ã… ½uperkien? 2015). Now, my professional goal is to hold senior management position in marketing department in a reputed organization. In this study, I will focus on providing in-depth analysis of my professional development plan for achieving all my goals in an appropriate way. I understand the fact that I have to come up with the organizational hierarchy for holding senior management position in the marketing domain. For that reason, development of clear plan is necessary for fulfilling all the objectives in an appropriate way. It is clear that I hav e to start from the executive position to fulfill my professional goals and objectives. The study will provide the amount of benefits that proper development of professional plan can have on individuals. Furthermore, the study will also provide an action plan for achieving the desired objectives in an effective way. The action plan will focus on including each detail so that it can provide a clear idea regarding the present professional condition. Critical reflection: I believe professional development plan is extremely important to provide individuals a root map regarding the career enhancement process. I believe proper utilization of professional development plan allow individuals to assess their strengths and weaknesses in an appropriate way. Therefore, it has become easier for the individuals to take necessary steps to reduce the amount of weaknesses. Furthermore, it allows individuals to identify next step towards the fulfillment of professional objectives. As per the article by Moon (2013) professional development plan provide realistic aims or goals for an individual, which influence them to give their best at the workplace. As a result, I believe it has increased the efficiency level of the employees that also create positive impact on the effectiveness of the operational process of an organization. I also feel that professional development plan allow individuals to focus on enhancing specific skill set so that they can able to counter dif ferent organizational challenges. For instance, I am focusing on enhancing my communicational skill level so that I can perform the job responsibilities of a senior marketing manager in an appropriate way. However, I feel that becoming a senior manager in the marketing department requires specific skills and attributes. Therefore, it is necessary for me to evaluate all the attributes mentioned in the How to fit the design in an appropriate way to have a clear idea about my positive and negative aspects. Now, the first attribute of How to fit the design is focusing on teamwork aspect. I believe teamwork is necessary for any marketing team for fulfilling its objectives in an appropriate manner. Therefore, it is necessary for me to focus on the teamwork aspect in a detailed way (Leong et al. 2014). However, I believe that I am naturally a team player, as I have successfully completed several team projects already. Furthermore, I feel that working with other individuals allow understanding same situation from different perspectives, which also can create positive impact on the operational process. Furthermore, I have captained my school football team for 2 years successfully. Therefore, I feel that it will not be a big issue for me to work in a team appropriately. Furthermore, development of teamwork requires in-depth understanding from the leaders regarding the emotional and perceptional attributes. For that reason, I believe that it is necessary for any leader to gather in-depth knowledge regarding the maintenance of the emotional attributes, which is necessary for developing string team commitment. The second attribute of How to fit the design focus on personal networking aspect. As per the article by Jeffries et al. (2013), proper utilization of personal networking process can actually help managers to resolve issue of the subordinates in an effective way. Proper utilization of networking system allows organization to capture best talents available in market, which is necessary for fulfilling any business responsibilities. For that reason, I have tried to increase my personal network as much as possible so that it can help me in the professional career as well. I have mentioned strong relationship with my old school friends and other charitable causes for enhancing my management skill as much as possible. However, I do not like giving unwanted advice to other people, which might have affected my personal networking skills. Thirdly, How to fit the design has focused on the international role that managers have to play for providing additional benefits to the organizations. In the globalized business environment, every organization is looking on to expand its businesses all across the globe. Therefore, I believe it is necessary for any managers to focus on enhancing the skill level so that they can able to handle international business challenges in an appropriate manner. In the present globalize business environment, managers need to possess skills to handle entire internal issues of the businesses (Cross, Belich and Rudelius 2015). I feel that the kind of skills required for handling international business issues come only with the experience. Therefore, I will have to focus on enhancing my professional experience level for fulfilling all the international requirements of the organization in an appropriate way. Fourth aspect of How to fit the design focuses on the corporate cultural preferences as it also can create major impact on the effectiveness of the operational process. As per the article by McConnell, Delate and Newlon (2015), corporate culture plays a significant role in developing proper working environment where employees can give their best at the workplace. Therefore, it is regarded as one of the prime responsibilities of the managers to utilize corporate cultural preferences in such a way so that all the business objectives of the organization can be fulfilled in an appropriate manner. Therefore, as a manager it is necessary to evaluate cultural perspective of the employees in an in-depth way so that they can able to maintain healthy work culture, which is necessary for achieving sustainable growth in the market. Fifthly, How to fit the design has focused on the goal setting attributes of the managers, as it helps to direct the employees towards same direction. I feel that managers need to have proper goal setting skills to motivate employees to give their best at the workplace. I believe setting realistic goals influences employees to give that extra effort towards the fulfillment of organizational goals. As a result, it helps employees to complete all the tasks within the provided responsibilities (Lantos 2015). Now, I have assessed that I do possess skills to develop realistic goals for the employees, which will help me to develop healthy work culture. I am also very clear in defining goals to other employees so that the entire group remains on same page. I feel that goals setting skills would help me to fulfill my professional objectives in an appropriate manner. Thereafter, the focus of How to fit the design is provided on organizational size. Thus, it actually focuses on to evaluate the individuals perspective for selecting a particular job. For instance, I would definitely like to work in the prime well-established organizations, as it expected to provide me more challenge to fulfill my responsibilities. I feel that working in large size organization will definitely help me to gather knowledge regarding all possible aspects of marketing. I also believe that working in large size organization as manager, will help to handle more employees for fulfilling organizational responsibilities, which will help to improve my skills as managers. On the other hand, Janssen et al. (2013) have focused on the evaluation of mind in order to provide an idea regarding the kind of intelligence is required to fulfill the entire managerial responsibilities. Now, I believe that I am capable of working under extreme pressure situation, which will allow me to hand le employees in an appropriate manner. Thereafter, the focus will be on strategy formulation capabilities of individuals, as it is required to become a successful manager (DeConinck and Stilwell 2015). I feel that proper utilization of organizational strategies is necessary for fulfilling all the responsibilities in an effective manner. Finally, How to fit the design has focused on the innovative skills of the managers, as it can have great impact on the overall effectiveness of the business process. As per the article by Zepeda (2012), increasing competition in the global market has influenced organizations to develop innovative strategies for gaining competitive advantage in the market. Therefore, as a marketing manager, I will definitely have to focus on developing innovative strategies to maintain the growth rate of the organization. Professional development action plan: The above discussion has highlighted several factors that managers need to focus on for fulfilling all the objectives in an appropriate manner. However, I have focused on the three attributes for becoming better leader in the organizational environment. For instance, I have selected team development perspective to handle organizational challenges in an appropriate way. I have evaluated that my How to fit the design score in the team development attribute is 5, which highlighted the fact that working within a team is not a big challenge for me. Furthermore, the score also highlights the fact that I am comfortable enough work alone with the limited guidance, which I believe will help me to grow up in my professional career. Now, in order to enhance my skill as a team player, I have focused on being part of several groups at the similar time. I feel that the more I will interact with different individuals, the better I will become in handling team challenges. I have already devoted myse lf with a non-profit organization, where I have been a part of around 25 members team. I believe it will help me to gain practical experiences regarding the team development aspect. Furthermore, I am trying to enhance my communication skills as much as possible to ensure that I can able to communicate effectively with all members of the team in an appropriate way. Moreover, I am also looking to evaluate my performances as a team player in order to identify the areas where improvement is required. I am also trying to assess the level of bond I am capable of creating with other members so that it can provide me an idea regarding where I stand as team player currently. Secondly, I am focusing on enhancing my perspective regarding the size of the organizations. I have analyzed that my How to fit the design score in this attributes is 7, which has highlighted the fact that my preferences is biased towards the large size organization. I have already mentioned that I am more focused towards working in well-established organizations. I believe that working in large size organization will expose me in different types of challenges, which will enrich my knowledge as a manager. However, Eady and Hardy (2015) have mentioned that small size organizations also do have their separate set of challenges that marketing managers will have to counter in an appropriate manner. For instance, majority of the time small size organizations invest very limited amount on the promotional activities. As a result, marketing managers will have to be extremely careful regarding the utilization of provided fund so that it can able to create maximum impact on the market. For tha t reason, I believe I have to open my mind on working with small or mid size organizations as well, as it can also provide me greater knowledge regarding the management skills and liabilities. For that reason, I am currently focusing on to have face-to-face communication with different individuals working as marketing managers in several sectors. I believe it will help me to understand all the managerial perspective in an appropriate way. I am also trying to understand the differences between working in large size and small size organizations. I believe it will help me to prepare myself for all kind of distinct challenges that a marketing manager has to face for fulfilling organizational responsibilities. However, I feel that large size organizations are very much concerned regarding the employee development. For that reason, I believe it will focus on proving enough training to the all levels of employees, which will allow them to enhance their level of knowledge and skills in a ma jor way. I believe working in large size organizations will help me to grow up in my professional career in an appropriate way. Thirdly, I will focus on the goal setting attributes, as it will help organizations to fulfill all its objectives in an appropriate way. I have evaluated my How to fit the design score in this attributes is 8, which highlighted the fact that I am very much versed in setting realistic goals for the subordinates. It also established the fact that my goal setting strategies are versed enough to fulfill all the aims and objectives of the organizations in an appropriate way. I believe that goal setting skills is among the prime skills that marketing managers need to have for fulfilling all the provided responsibilities. For that reason, I am trying to assess the kind of goals several successful managers are setting to encourage the employees to give their best at the workplace. I believe it is crucial to identify the factors that can have impact on the effectiveness of the goal setting strategies. For instance, I have identified that evaluating the capabilities of the employees, provided fund of the organizations, provided timeframe can also have major impact on the effectiveness of the goal setting strategies. Conclusion: The above discussion has highlighted the fact that effective utilization of professional development plan can help individuals to fulfill their professional objectives in an appropriate way. However, the above assessment has highlighted the fact that individuals will have to consider several factors for fulfilling desired objectives. The study has also highlighted the fact that holding the post of marketing managers require continues improvement. Therefore, a proper plan can help individuals to move towards the right direction in an effective way. References: Cross, J.C., Belich, T.J. and Rudelius, W., 2015. How marketing managers use market segmentation: an exploratory study. InProceedings of the 1990 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference(pp. 531-536). Springer International Publishing. DeConinck, J.B. and Stilwell, C.D., 2015. Turnover Intentions of Marketing Managers. InProceedings of the 1994 Academy of Marketing Science (AMS) Annual Conference(pp. 201-204). Springer International Publishing. Eady, S. and Hardy, C., 2015. 12. Personal professional development.Primary Professional Studies, p.221. Janssen, S., Kreijns, K., Bastiaens, T.J., Stijnen, S. and Vermeulen, M., 2013. Teachers' beliefs about using a professional development plan.International Journal of Training and Development,17(4), pp.260-278. Jeffries, P.R., Battin, J., Franklin, M., Savage, R., Yowler, H., Sims, C., Hall, T., Eisert, S., Lauber, C., Brown, S. and Werskey, K., 2013. Creating a professional development plan for a simulation consortium9(6), pp.e183-e189. Lantos, G.P., 2015.Consumer behavior in action: Real-life applications for marketing managers. Routledge. Leong, J., Phillips, R., Giddens, D. and Dickson, T., 2014. Continuing professional development for LIS professionals: Maximizing potential in an organizational context.KIIT Journal of Library and Information Management,1(1), pp.5-14. McConnell, K.J., Delate, T. and Newlon, C.L., 2015. The sustainability of improvements from continuing professional development in pharmacy practice and learning behaviors.American journal of pharmaceutical education,79(3). Moon, J.A., 2013.Reflection in learning and professional development: Theory and practice. Routledge. Zakarevi?ius, P. and Ã… ½uperkien?, E., 2015. Improving the Development of Managers Personal and Professional Skills.Engineering Economics,60(5). Zepeda, S.J., 2012.Professional development: What works. Eye on education.

Give a little, to get a little free essay sample

The aroma of spilled sweat, worn metal and apprehension flooded my nose as I gazed at the translucent mist that laid over the four lane track I had grown so accustomed to. It finally started, the season that I both dread and anticipate all year had made its way to my calendar, burning a hole in my stomach, reminding me of my unease. I replay my drills in my head, remembering my steps, my numbers for the blocks, the word â€Å"hand† over and over. My sweats can’t seem to keep me warm on this dimming April afternoon and I sit on the bone chilling bleachers with the abused blue baton cradled in my sweatshirt pocket. Shaken by a fellow teammate, I realize it’s time to pull on my hood, prepare my spikes and begin those most detested two laps around the field. Year after year, I make the constant claim, that I do not want the stress, the nausea nor to ever see the faces of my teammates filled with disappointment. We will write a custom essay sample on Give a little, to get a little or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Although I make this exact declaration each year, I still return to the track team with eagerness and delight. I have discovered that I have a strong attachment to these exact components, I love the thrill of competition and the agony of defeat, because they give me the opportunity to experience what its like from both sides of the spectrum. Last season, however, was different, I was to fill the spikes of an infamous senior who started each 4 by 1 and 4 by 2 relay. My stomach lurched as the announcer called the 4 by 1 relay into the bull pen. I was engulfed with the desire to turn around and run. Nevertheless, time beat me to the punch and soon enough my sweats were lying abandoned on the side of the asphalt track, yearning for my warmth. â€Å"Runners to your marks†, breathe, just stay on your toes. â€Å"Set†, keep your hips high and your elbows up, â€Å"Go!† just run as fast as you possibly can! The gun blasted and I kicked the block back with every ounce of nerves I had savored, the rest was up to my team. Throughout the years, I have found that there is an equilibrium where all that you can do meets all that the rest of what your team can do for you. I have always been a firm believer in pushing yourself, but when you are pushing others to accomplish a common goal, there is no greater triumph. In the end each relay has its own conclusion; the spectators see it as you win or lose, the coaches think it’s all about the hand off, and the opposing team decides whether it will be doling out congratulations or gloating in their victory. While to a relay team, the conclusion is whether there was successful team unity or whether there is a scape goat to blame the loss on. The harmony of working on a team has helped me to value cooperation and determination. I found that in order for me to meet a goal with a combined effort from others, I must be a leader and a follower. For me, the relay still comes down to the same components, the team and the baton, and that for it all to work, I must give a little to get a little.

Blues essays

Blues essays Chicago is one of our nations greatest cities, from the Sears Tower to Lake Shore Drive, even Frank Sinatra showed enormous love for the city. It has produced some of the best art and music, and has made itself well known in our countrys short history. But how can you portray such a city onto the big screen? John Landis did a great comedy with Animal House, and he took a shot with filming a movie in Chicago and did it perfectly. The Blues Brothers(1980) shows Chicago as a magnificent city with all races and ethnics. Almost every aspect of the city is shown and you almost feel what it is like to live in Chicago. The Blues Brothers is easily one of the finest movies to ever be filmed in Chicago. The Blues Brothers is a flat out musical-comedy that is just brilliant. The film includes music legends like Aretha Franklin, James Brown, and Ray Charles. All three add a wonderful part into this movie. The Blues Brothers themselves are musicians and as for the comedy part, that comes from Jake and Elwood Blues, played by John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd. They are trying to save the orphanage(which is actually located in Calumet City) that they grew up in, and they try doing this by getting there old band back together. If the band gets back together they can pay Cook County the 5,000.00 dollars the orphanage owes. But in doing this the manage to tick everyone off they run into. Throughout the movie the Blues brothers travel all over the city and you get to see as much as you can of Chicago without going on a tour of the city. The movie starts off with Joliet Jake getting released from the Joliet Correctional Center, located in Joliet, IL. Joliet is one of Illinoiss largest cities, next to Chicago, and is home to numerous prisons. Now with the movie starting out the way it does you can obviously see that the main character is no stranger to prisons, hence the name Joliet Jake. If the viewer has no idea on where Jolie...

Journal Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Journal Summary - Essay Example These needs imply the needs for self-preservation and economic independence. These are the needs for being free from physical danger, threat and deprivation. Man is a social animal. He therefore wants association, belonging, friendship, love and affection. These are the need to seek affiliation and affection of one’s fellow beings. People form informal groups to seek meaningful association, companionship. This implies ‘a desire to become more and more of what one is, to become everything that one is capable of.’ It involves self-fulfilment or achieving what one considers to be his mission in life. It urges an individual to realize his full potential for continued self development and for being creative in the broader sense of the world. Maslow pointed out that the first three categories are lower level needs. The remaining two are higher order needs. He states that the needs have a definite sequence of priority. They arise in certain order of preference and not randomly. Safety needs do not dominate behaviour until physiological needs are satisfied. Man is a wanting animal. He always continues to want something or the other. He is never satisfied. If one need is satisfied, another takes its place. If one need is satisfied it ceases to be a motivating factor. Thus, if lower level needs are satisfied an individual can be motivated only by satisfying his higher level needs. Physiological and security needs are finite while the other needs are to a large extent infinite. Maslow suggests that the various needs levels are interdependent and overlapping, each higher level need emerging before the lower level need has been completely satisfied. Finally, Maslow points out that an individual may jumble the order and importan ce of the needs according to his preference. Motivation theory is concerned with the employee’s needs and preferences. Frederick Herzberg and his associates conducted

Target Corporation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Target Corporation - Research Paper Example Upon this foundation, Target is expanding its business operations internationally. It hopes to start retail chains in Canada by 2013. By moving across borders, Target will follow and provide competition for Wal-Mart. Consequently, it will continue to grow and fund additional projects such as expansion through acquisitions. The success of Target is largely attributable to the culture of the organization, which stresses honesty and community (Rowley 145). In this examination of Target Corporation, we hope to accomplish a comprehensive look at the company’s history, financials, capital, reputation, marketing, and future. This all-inclusive view of the company can thus be evaluated in terms of how Target would like to perceive and how the public actually sees Target Corporation as an asset (or a liability) in their communities. Human Capital Target Corporation employs roughly 355,000 employees throughout the United States, who take part in a variety of operational functions such as managing stores, marketing, and customer service (SEC). Employees at Target are generally happy; however, there is some criticism of compensation and benefit packages offered by the company. For instance, it is alleged by labor groups and current employees that Target, based out of Minneapolis, pays less in some cases than their competitor Wal-Mart. does According to a recent survey by UFCW, Target pays entry-level positions a salary of about $6.25 per hour to $8 per hour, depending on qualifications (Serres). This is below- or at-the-market in terms of large retail chains. Therefore, even though Wal-Mart is often the subject of criticisms and community rejection, it seems that Target has a similar pay scheme for low-level employees to their competitor. In terms of benefits, union groups see Target as less equitable than its competitors do. In the early 2000s, Target dropped all health care insurance coverage for part-time workers, while Wal-Mart has maintained its medical plan available to all workers (Serres). However, many employees still agree that it is a better place to work than some other large retail chains, despite the weaknesses in the health care insurance pr ogram. Target’s benefits packages rate high in terms of flexibility for higher-level employees. The 401(k) plans offered by Target considered some of the best in the industry insofar as it matches dollar for dollar up to five percent of contributions made by employees. In addition, Target offers many other programs including the â€Å"Take Charge of Education† program that allows Target credit-card holders to donate 1 percent a year of their purchases to a school of their choice. This is in line with Target’s explicit commitment to the value of family (Rowley 146). Union Involvement Target Corporation is like Wal-Mart in the fact that they are not unionized. In fact, Target sees unionization as a potential threat to their corporate success (Rowley 141). For that reason, the company has published anti-video literature and videos in order to warn their employees about the dangers of a union. Deborah Weinswig, an analyst with Salomon Smith Barney, said that,  "Target is not a union, so it can charge lower prices than other food retailers. In the Northeast, SuperTargets have done extremely well† (Rowley 174). This lends credence to the view that Target would be negatively affected by a unionization of its employees. These efforts were increased in 2009 in response to

CorruptionDefoe's capitalist views and his moral purpose in Roxana Essay

CorruptionDefoe's capitalist views and his moral purpose in Roxana - Essay Example Robinson Crusoe extended the form of the picaresque and turned an adventure tale into a critique of colonialism. Moll Flanders did the same with the class of 'gentlewomen'. Roxana similarly has come to be accepted as a critique of early capitalism -- a time in English history when the industrial revolution was yet not a tactile reality but a creepy creature whose tugs on morality, civility and social infrastructure were being secretly felt. Defoe takes a old world morality tale about a woman's coming to terms with her own profession as a whore and turns it into a contemporary tale about capitalism's philosophy of self-aggrandizement and saleability of the self. In retrospect Defoe will seem prophetic in his constitution of the plot about Roxana's willing acceptance of her profession and how she readily agrees to 'capitalise' it when she knows her moral degradation is irreversible. In medieval morality plays, Roxana's good self would have been saved by a benign god who in a climactic moment would retrieve her from misery. But in Defoe's world emergent capitalism prevails over frivolling morality and what would have been a fallen life before becomes a life of opportunities for Roxana. No wonder Roxana is called Defoe's 'darkest' novel and that explains the crowd of critical and scholarly attention that it has received. The term 'dark' is not a secular word and hence burdens the novel with a given morality and wisdom. By such means it is easy to provide an ordinary, feminist framework for Roxana and turn it into a conventional male author's depiction of a bold woman, too much in control of her sexuality and hence too obviously susceptible to moral decrepitude and eventual fall. But at another level Roxana is a mock tale about capitalism, corruption and individual enterprise. As the novel proceeds, we see Roxana triumphant, outwitting the males in her life and by using them to achieve her own purposes. Later, she is seen to be felled again and reverts to her previous status of misery and helplessness. At one level if this is her punishment for living against the moral standards of the society and the fantasy of a protestant moralist, at another level it is a critique of the

Effect of the Local Environment on Bees

Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Local Environment Europe The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. Bees have an important ecological role; they are insect pollinators providing a crucial service. Without insect pollination human diet would be very different to how we know it now. Declines in pollinators have been reported and by attempting to understand the how the local environment affects bee abundance and diversity it may be possible to prevent any further decline. Samples were collected at six sites across Europe in each site there was a disturbed landscape and a natural landscape and within each of these a hot and a cold area. Samples were collected, pinned and identified to genera and the Halictus measured. Analysis found that there was no significant difference in size between different countries, landscape and temperature. The number of individuals and the number of genera did not significantly differ between temperature, landscape and country however on a smaller country level there were differences in the numbers of individuals and genera at different landscapes. The number of bumblebees was affected by the landscape with more individuals found in the disturbed landscapes; it is possible that due to the foraging ability and feeding preferences that bumblebees are able to gain an advantage in a disturbed landscape. Different genera were found in different regions with high numbers of Panurgus and Panurginus found in Spain and Catalunya. The number of bumblebees was also found to be significantly related to latitude. These differences in composition in different areas could be seriously affected in the face of climate change. The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. 1: Background and importance â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.† Albert Einstein 1.1: The importance of bees Bees provide the critical ecosystem service of pollination (Kearns et al 1998). Insect pollination is essential for our life as we know it. 84% of crops in the EU depend on insect pollination (Williams 1994) and one third of our diet can be attributed to insect pollination, either directly or indirectly (McGregor 1976). Of the insect pollinators it is bees which provide the most pollination, bees which are highly adapted to flower visitation, have been confirmed to be pollinators for 72.7% of crop species and it is thought they could be responsible for the pollination of another 10.2% (Williams 1994, Roubik 1995). Declines in bees point towards serious consequences for natural ecosystem process and agricultural processes (Biesmeijer et al 2006). The declines being experienced on local and regional scales present a worrying situation with habitat loss, fragmentation, agricultural intensification and pesticide use causing declines in honey bees, solitary bees, wild bees and bumble bees (Steffan-Dewenter et al 2005). The greatest diversity of bees in the world is experienced in arid and semi-arid regions of the world including the Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe (Danforth 2007). Most of the bees in the world are solitary bees (National Research Council of the National Academies 2007) and of the solitary bees the majority of them are resource specialists, oligolectic (Wcislo and Cane 1996). Oligolectics are bee species which collect pollen from one genus or species but can collect nectar from a variety of plants, they are often referred to as specialists. Polylectic bee species are generalists; they can collect pollen from a variety of flowering plants and include the honeybee (Apis) and the bumblebee (Bombus). In theory the risk of extinction is elevated in oligolectic bees as their presence and distribution is limited by just one floral host (Zayed and Packer 2007). Work by Cane et al (2006) into urban habitat fragmentation showed the abundance and richness of oligolectic bees to have declined but not to have declined in the polylectic bees. Due to the important role of bees it is essential to understand the abundance and diversity of bees across the landscape and the local factors that affect them. By understanding the local factors affecting the diversity and abundance of bees it may be possible to effectively manage and conserve bees and help to prevent any further declines in diversity and abundance. 1.2: Landscape Much of the natural habitat in Europe has been lost and the habitats with the highest species richness are the remaining semi-natural areas (Pimentel et al 1992). The impact of disturbance on insect communities is not so extensively studied as the impact on vegetation, on the studies that are available results show that different insect groups respond differently to disturbance (Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke 2003). Study by Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke (2003) on the effect of habitat management and landscape on bees and wasps in orchards in Europe showed that the vegetation was more significantly affected by the management practices than the insects. Bee species richness is correlated with the percentage of grassland in the surrounding landscape (Dauber et al 2003, Hendrickx et al 2007, Steffan-Dewenter et al 2002). The bees in the study by Hendrickx et al (2007) showed not only a decline with distance from semi-natural patches but also a decline with increasing management practices. The other groups in the study experienced increased numbers with proximity to semi-natural habitat but no significant declines with increasing agricultural management. The results for bees can be attributed due to bees having such a strong dependence on floral resources (Tscharntke et al 1998). Low plant diversity with limited floral resources may not to be able to support a high diversity of insects thus resulting in lower insect diversity and the ability to support only the generalist species (Westphal et al 2003). Proximity to floral resources and nesting sites is important as foraging distances can be fairly small. Large bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris can forage distances up to 3000m, as foraging distances are related to body size, smaller bees may only be able to forage a few metres (Westphal et al 2006). In the tropical forests of Costa Rica pasture management and the floral resources showed to have no significant impact on the diversity or abundance of bees, however deforested countryside just metres away from the forest contained a different community composition (Brosi et al 2006). The complexity of landscapes means that the impact of disturbance can vary depending on the frequency, intensity and extent of the disturbance (Samways 2005). Moderate disturbance can actually increase the diversity of the area by opening up areas for colonisation by providing ecological niches and opportunities for rarer species (Caswell 1976, Connell 1978, Petraitis et al 1989). Alternately diversity could be lowered as the dominance of opportunistic species is increased (Margalef 1968). Bees depend on floral resources for nectar and pollen and can only travel certain distances from their nesting site to reach it, both flowers and nests need to be close by. Therefore declining floral resources, and declining suitable nest sites, as experienced in large scale disturbed areas, may result in the declining numbers and diversity of bees. 1.3: Microclimate- temperature The microclimate, the lowest two metres of the atmosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 1992), is the layer of the atmosphere where the majority of plants and animals live (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The soil surface (or other substance, for example forest or concrete) influences the heat and moisture budget of the surrounding atmosphere producing localised variations in the climatic conditions, for example temperature, windspeed and humidity. The relationship between plant and microclimate is a close one with plants affecting the climatic conditions around them and the microclimate affects the factors controlling the functioning of the plant including the availability of the products required for photosynthesis. Insects benefit from this interaction and due to the close mutalistic relationship between some plant and insect species, for example plants and pollinators, are dependent on a healthy relationship between microclimate and plants. An unsuitable microclimate will lead to the deterioration of plant life and eventual death of the plant and insects dependent on it. 1.4: Insects, temperature and body size In many insects body temperature is essential in order to gain flight. An insect needs to gain enough energy to fly; it needs to raise the thoracic temperature above the temperature of the environment (Bishop and Armbruster 1999) this can be achieved by basking and endothermy (producing heat in the muscles) (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The size of the insect plays a vital role in the ability to heat up and subsequently fly and forage. A study by Casey and Joos (1983) found that the proportion of heat lost from the thorax per time unit decreases as the body mass of the insect increases, therefore larger insects are slower at gaining and loosing heat. Bishop and Armbruster (1999) also concluded that the ability to raise temperature in order to fly increases with body size making bumblebees better thermoregulators than solitary bees. Even when looking at solitary bees larger solitary bees will be better at thermoregulation than smaller solitary bees. Foraging activity can be restricted by thermoregulation factors (Heinrich 1974) and not just over winter. In the summer months foraging at high latitudes and higher temperatures may prove to be difficult for larger insects with solitary bees reaping the floral rewards. Whilst in cooler areas at lower latitudes larger bees, such as bumblebees will have the advantage (Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Tropical bumblebees have been found to be the largest bees, an exception to the rest of the findings by Peat et al (2205). They found that the mean size of bumblebees varies between different climates with colder climates having a larger mean size than those of warmer climates. Size variation of bumblebees within a region was found not to be related to temperature but other factors, possibly to improve colony foraging with different sizes able to visit different flowers (Peat et al 2005). It is not just at different temperatures, different latitudes and different elevations that there are heat constraints on the species present but also a daily sequence. Heinrich (1976) observed bees visiting flower patches and noted the day sequence process. Large insects, such as large bumblebees, are able to achieve a body temperature high enough to fly at a lower temperature than a smaller insect, for example a small solitary bee. This then means that earlier in the day the bumblebee can begin to forage and last longer into the evening when the temperature of the environment begins to fall. However in the midday heat the bumblebee may become overheated and need to retreat and cease flying for a few hours. The small solitary bee although not able to start until later and unable to continue into the evening will be able to cope in the midday heat and continue to forage (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The temperature of the area determines the foraging activity of bees and will influence the bees present in the area. What is under-researched is the effect of very localised temperature has on the bees and size of bees present. 1.5: Climate The temperature of the environment does not only determine the body temperature of the insect but also the geographical range (Gates 1993). Over the past 30years shifts in the abundance and distribution of a variety of species have been witnessed due to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). Hickling et al (2006) studied the distributions of different taxonomic groups in Britain over the last 25years to examine any shifts in range that may have occurred. A shift in distribution upwards and northwards was found in most taxonomic groups with the latitude being a more significant factor than elevation. Alterations to geographic ranges will impact different organisms in different ways and at different times in their lifecycle. It is possible that the interactions between organisms could be severely affected and possibly even destroyed, in some instances resulting in the extinction of one or both of the species. With these shifts in distributions comes the increased possibility of species extinctions, one prediction for 2050 using a mid-range climate scenario showed 15-37% of species committed to extinction (Thomas et al 2004). In order to avoid the risk of extinction species will have to be able to keep up with the changing climate by migrating at fast enough rates however barriers such as mountains and fragmented, disturbed landscapes may hinder this migration (Pearson and Dawson 2003). General climate models which observe the possible consequences of climate change show a general pattern of the increasing of the Mediterranean summer drought (Gates 1993). As a result it is expected that a shift in species composition will occur and drought conditions will lead to reduced plant cover. This will inevitably impact many insect species including pollinators, such as bees, that will lose their source of nectar and pollen. Research suggests that resource specialists are likely to be the first to suffer declines as they rely on just one plant for their pollen (Cane et al 2006). Looking at the effect of local temperatures on abundance and richness may be able to give an indication of what will follow with global climate change and thus be an aid for planning and conservation measures. 2: Aims and Objectives Bees are essential for pollination and are the key to maintaining life as we know it. Reaching and maintaining the right temperature is essential for an insect’s flight, there is evidence that reaching this temperature is related to body size but does it vary with temperature within a microclimate? Does the local temperature affect the bee diversity and abundance and will this provide any insights into what may happen in the face of global climate change? Within Europe it has been reported that it is the remaining semi-natural habitats that contain the most species richness. If this is the case it would be expected that areas of human disturbance would experience a much lower diversity and abundance. In this project the aim is to examine the effect that the local conditions, temperature and landscape, have on the abundance and genera of bees in a selection of regions across Europe. Within this there are three main objectives to be examined: To determine if the local temperature affects the abundance and diversity of bees. To determine if the surrounding landscape, disturbed or natural, affects the diversity and abundance of bees. To establish whether the size of certain genera are significantly affected by the local environment. 3: Methodology 3.1: Site selection Samples of pollinators were collected in field sites throughout Europe in the summer of 2007 as part of the CITIRAT (Climate Interactions with Terrestrial plant Interactions a Risk Assessment Tool) project. The CITIRAT project is part of the wider EU ALARM (Assessing LArge scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project (http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/). The field sites for the CITIRAT project were pre-determined by ALARM, with the core sites situated in different regions throughout Europe allowing the study of most of the climatic regions in Europe. For each of the core sites there are two sites measuring 4km by 4km within 50km of each other. One of the two sites being predominantly natural or semi-natural and the other site a disturbed landscape. The two focal sites have being selected so that the geological and environmental parameters are as similar as possible allowing the human disturbance to be the most distinguishing features between the sites. Figure 3.1.1 shows examples of the land cover in each category. Table 3.1.1: An example of the classification of disturbed and natural sites, categories taken from the level 3 CORINE 2000 land cover classification. Disturbed Non-irrigated arable land, pastures, discontinuous urban fabric, complex cultivation procedures, fruit trees and berry plantations, agro-forestry areas, olive groves, permanently irrigated land. Natural/semi-natural Mixed forest, coniferous forest, broadleaved forest, transitional woodland-scrub, sclerophyllous vegetation, natural grasslands. Using GIS analysis the temperature for each of the disturbed and natural areas was calculated using a model which combined the elevation, slope, aspect, average daytime temperature, clear sky solar radiation maps. This model then gave the temperatures for points throughout the landscape, the hottest 10% and coldest 10% of points were selected and ranked, the top two temperature points for both hot and cold were then determined and ready for fieldwork to begin. 3.2: Sampling method Each of the two landscapes (disturbed and natural) had two sampling rounds approximately 2 weeks apart. Within each sampling round two hot and two cold temperature sites were used (as predetermined by the GIS analysis). Each temperature spot had three cluster sets of pan traps, one white, one yellow and one blue. Each cluster contained five pan traps of a single colour. Each cluster was situated five metres apart in open, low vegetation at ground level. The pan traps were left out over a two day period in dry conditions with low wind and a temperature of greater than 15 ºC. Leaving pan traps out over a two day period eradicated any daily variation in bee species present due to daily temperature fluctuations. By using all three coloured pan traps bias was reduced as a range of colour preferences could be catered for (Leong and Thorp 1999). When the samples, preserved in alcohol, were returned to Leeds the samples were sorted taking note of the number of honeybees, number of bumble bees, number of other bees, number of hoverflies and the number of butterflies. Anything else that was collected in traps was discarded. The bumblebees and other bees were removed from the sample tubes, and were dried, pinned and labelled. The bees were then identified to genus level and the results recorded. Figure 3.3.1: Map of Europe showing the ALARM core sites. The yellow dots indicate the sites used in this analysis and their ‘country’ label. Adapted from an image available at: http://www.alarmproject.net. 3.3: Analytical method Samples were collected at sites all across Europe. Time and resource restraints meant that not all of the sites sampled could be pinned and identified for use in this study. The sites used were carefully selected with sites showing high variation in elevation and therefore temperature differences chosen. Figure 3.3.1 shows the European sites used in this project and table 3.3.1 shows the latitude and longitude of the sites. From here on these ‘sites’ will be called countries to avoid confusion. Table 3.3.1: Sites used with the latitude and Longitude Country Landscape Latitude Longitude Austria Disturbed 47.5205 14.1432 Austria Natural 48.0125 15.1620 Catalunya Disturbed 41.2620 1.7714 Catalunya Natural 41.2526 1.9006 Germany Disturbed 51.5491 9.7754 Germany Natural 51.4540 12.9410 Italy Disturbed 45.6202 12.4526 Italy Natural 45.7775 12.6088 Spain Disturbed 39.3153 -4.0661 Spain Natural 39.4133 -4.0650 UK Disturbed 51.5082 -1.5310 UK Natural 51.7650 -0.4585 To calculate the diversity for each of the conditions at each of the sites the Simpson’s diversity index, which is â€Å"one of the most meaningful and robust diversity measures†(Magurran 2004) was used. The index works by calculating the probability, that from a community of infinite size, two individuals will belong to the same species. The Simpson diversity index was expressed as 1-D therefore meaning that as the Simpson’s diversity decreases as does the diversity, this logical adaptation of the index mean that the diversity of the samples could easily be calculated and compared. In order to determine if the size of bees are affected by the local conditions one genus, Halictus was chosen due to them making up a large proportion of total individuals present. To measure the Halictus samples a random number table was used to determine which specimens should be measured. All of the specimens were females and from two countries, Spain and Germany. Digital callipers were used under a microscope to measure the width of the thorax, in-between the base of the wings. The numbers of Bombus’ were looked at as well as the size of the Halictus. Bombus’ are known to be (generally) a larger body size and better thermoregulators so provide a good genus to use as an indication of distribution related to the local environment factors. The information available for use in the statistical analysis was the number of individuals, the number of genera, the temperature (hot or cold), the landscape (disturbed or natural), the country, the sample round (1 or 2), the site (either 1 or 2), the diversity (Simpson’s 1-D), the number of bumblebees, the number of solitary bees and for a selection of sites the size of Halictus. The statistical analysis was carried out using R and Minitab for the principal component analysis. Excel was used for the production of some of the graphics. Not all the data was normally distributed, distributions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis used was a mixed effects model but not all data meet the assumptions so where unavoidable non-parametric tests were used, a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL). 4: Results Nineteen Genera were identified; a list of these genera and authorities can be viewed in the appendix A. One genus could not be confirmed despite various opinions but is suspected that it might be Panurginus. 4.1: Individuals and genera Figure 4.1.1: The mean number of individuals per sample round, error bars indicate  ±1 SE. (t66= -5.804, p= A mixed effects model was used for the analysis of the individuals. The random effects were site, landscape and country. The standard deviation estimate for country was 0.528 showing that for the countries there was a variation from the mean, this may affect the outcome of the model. The only significant factor was sample round (t66=-6.456, p= There were no significant differences in individuals within temperature, landscape, sample round or any of the interaction terms. To alleviate the problem of countries having a great variation in the numbers of individuals the model was rerun with countries as a fixed factor. This reduced the variation of the random effects and recalculated the fixed effects. Sample round remained the only significant factor (t66= 5.804, p= The dataset for genera was non-parametric so the model used was the glmmPQL. A very low standard deviation estimate was given for each of the random factors (country= 4.2: Diversity The generalised mix effects model for diversity used Simpson’s 1-D values. The estimates of standard deviation for the random effect of country were extremely low, Figure 4.1.2: The mean diversity (Simpson’s 1-D) for each country. Error bars indicate  ± 1 SE. The diversity was not significantly for any of the factors, Standard deviation between countries was low at 4.3: Bumblebees and other bees The numbers of bumblebees (Bombus spp) were used in a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL) in order to determine if there were significant differences in the variation between temperature, landscape and sample round. The standard deviation of country was high at 1.376 showing that within the effect of country there was a lot of variation from the mean, thus contributing to the variation in bumblebees and possibly influencing the overall model. Of the fixed factors sample round and landscape were shown to be significant. Bumblebee numbers were significantly different for sample round (t79=-3.59, p=0.001, 95%CL) and landscape (t76= -3.314, p=0.001, 95%CL). Rerunning the model with country as a fixed factor changed the results. The standard deviation of the site was low at 81= -3.153, 95%CL), sample round (p=0.001, t81 = -3.394,) and also several countries were significantly different from the control country which was Austria. Catalunya (p=0.001, t81=-3.488, 95% CL), Italy (p=0.043, t81=-2.060, 95%CL), Spain (p=0.014, t81=-2.513, 95%CL) and the UK (p=0.002, t81=3.266, 95% CL). Germany was proven to not be significantly different from Austria (P=0.392, t81=-0.861, 95%CL) (figure 4.3.3). Figure 4.3.2: The number of bumblebees per landscape. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.153, p=0.002, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.1: The number of bumblebees per sample round. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.394, p=0.001, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.3: The mean number of bumblebees per country, error bars represents  ± 1 SE. The number of other bees (bees that were not honeybee or bumblebees) were taken and used in a mixed effect generalised linear model (glmmPQL). The model was initially run with the random factors of country and site. The standard deviation for country was 0.968 Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Effect of the Local Environment on Bees Local Environment Europe The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. Bees have an important ecological role; they are insect pollinators providing a crucial service. Without insect pollination human diet would be very different to how we know it now. Declines in pollinators have been reported and by attempting to understand the how the local environment affects bee abundance and diversity it may be possible to prevent any further decline. Samples were collected at six sites across Europe in each site there was a disturbed landscape and a natural landscape and within each of these a hot and a cold area. Samples were collected, pinned and identified to genera and the Halictus measured. Analysis found that there was no significant difference in size between different countries, landscape and temperature. The number of individuals and the number of genera did not significantly differ between temperature, landscape and country however on a smaller country level there were differences in the numbers of individuals and genera at different landscapes. The number of bumblebees was affected by the landscape with more individuals found in the disturbed landscapes; it is possible that due to the foraging ability and feeding preferences that bumblebees are able to gain an advantage in a disturbed landscape. Different genera were found in different regions with high numbers of Panurgus and Panurginus found in Spain and Catalunya. The number of bumblebees was also found to be significantly related to latitude. These differences in composition in different areas could be seriously affected in the face of climate change. The effect of the local environment on bee abundance and diversity in regions throughout Europe. 1: Background and importance â€Å"If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe then man would only have four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man.† Albert Einstein 1.1: The importance of bees Bees provide the critical ecosystem service of pollination (Kearns et al 1998). Insect pollination is essential for our life as we know it. 84% of crops in the EU depend on insect pollination (Williams 1994) and one third of our diet can be attributed to insect pollination, either directly or indirectly (McGregor 1976). Of the insect pollinators it is bees which provide the most pollination, bees which are highly adapted to flower visitation, have been confirmed to be pollinators for 72.7% of crop species and it is thought they could be responsible for the pollination of another 10.2% (Williams 1994, Roubik 1995). Declines in bees point towards serious consequences for natural ecosystem process and agricultural processes (Biesmeijer et al 2006). The declines being experienced on local and regional scales present a worrying situation with habitat loss, fragmentation, agricultural intensification and pesticide use causing declines in honey bees, solitary bees, wild bees and bumble bees (Steffan-Dewenter et al 2005). The greatest diversity of bees in the world is experienced in arid and semi-arid regions of the world including the Mediterranean regions of Southern Europe (Danforth 2007). Most of the bees in the world are solitary bees (National Research Council of the National Academies 2007) and of the solitary bees the majority of them are resource specialists, oligolectic (Wcislo and Cane 1996). Oligolectics are bee species which collect pollen from one genus or species but can collect nectar from a variety of plants, they are often referred to as specialists. Polylectic bee species are generalists; they can collect pollen from a variety of flowering plants and include the honeybee (Apis) and the bumblebee (Bombus). In theory the risk of extinction is elevated in oligolectic bees as their presence and distribution is limited by just one floral host (Zayed and Packer 2007). Work by Cane et al (2006) into urban habitat fragmentation showed the abundance and richness of oligolectic bees to have declined but not to have declined in the polylectic bees. Due to the important role of bees it is essential to understand the abundance and diversity of bees across the landscape and the local factors that affect them. By understanding the local factors affecting the diversity and abundance of bees it may be possible to effectively manage and conserve bees and help to prevent any further declines in diversity and abundance. 1.2: Landscape Much of the natural habitat in Europe has been lost and the habitats with the highest species richness are the remaining semi-natural areas (Pimentel et al 1992). The impact of disturbance on insect communities is not so extensively studied as the impact on vegetation, on the studies that are available results show that different insect groups respond differently to disturbance (Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke 2003). Study by Steffan-Dewenter and Leschke (2003) on the effect of habitat management and landscape on bees and wasps in orchards in Europe showed that the vegetation was more significantly affected by the management practices than the insects. Bee species richness is correlated with the percentage of grassland in the surrounding landscape (Dauber et al 2003, Hendrickx et al 2007, Steffan-Dewenter et al 2002). The bees in the study by Hendrickx et al (2007) showed not only a decline with distance from semi-natural patches but also a decline with increasing management practices. The other groups in the study experienced increased numbers with proximity to semi-natural habitat but no significant declines with increasing agricultural management. The results for bees can be attributed due to bees having such a strong dependence on floral resources (Tscharntke et al 1998). Low plant diversity with limited floral resources may not to be able to support a high diversity of insects thus resulting in lower insect diversity and the ability to support only the generalist species (Westphal et al 2003). Proximity to floral resources and nesting sites is important as foraging distances can be fairly small. Large bumblebees such as Bombus terrestris can forage distances up to 3000m, as foraging distances are related to body size, smaller bees may only be able to forage a few metres (Westphal et al 2006). In the tropical forests of Costa Rica pasture management and the floral resources showed to have no significant impact on the diversity or abundance of bees, however deforested countryside just metres away from the forest contained a different community composition (Brosi et al 2006). The complexity of landscapes means that the impact of disturbance can vary depending on the frequency, intensity and extent of the disturbance (Samways 2005). Moderate disturbance can actually increase the diversity of the area by opening up areas for colonisation by providing ecological niches and opportunities for rarer species (Caswell 1976, Connell 1978, Petraitis et al 1989). Alternately diversity could be lowered as the dominance of opportunistic species is increased (Margalef 1968). Bees depend on floral resources for nectar and pollen and can only travel certain distances from their nesting site to reach it, both flowers and nests need to be close by. Therefore declining floral resources, and declining suitable nest sites, as experienced in large scale disturbed areas, may result in the declining numbers and diversity of bees. 1.3: Microclimate- temperature The microclimate, the lowest two metres of the atmosphere (Stoutjesdijk and Barkman 1992), is the layer of the atmosphere where the majority of plants and animals live (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The soil surface (or other substance, for example forest or concrete) influences the heat and moisture budget of the surrounding atmosphere producing localised variations in the climatic conditions, for example temperature, windspeed and humidity. The relationship between plant and microclimate is a close one with plants affecting the climatic conditions around them and the microclimate affects the factors controlling the functioning of the plant including the availability of the products required for photosynthesis. Insects benefit from this interaction and due to the close mutalistic relationship between some plant and insect species, for example plants and pollinators, are dependent on a healthy relationship between microclimate and plants. An unsuitable microclimate will lead to the deterioration of plant life and eventual death of the plant and insects dependent on it. 1.4: Insects, temperature and body size In many insects body temperature is essential in order to gain flight. An insect needs to gain enough energy to fly; it needs to raise the thoracic temperature above the temperature of the environment (Bishop and Armbruster 1999) this can be achieved by basking and endothermy (producing heat in the muscles) (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The size of the insect plays a vital role in the ability to heat up and subsequently fly and forage. A study by Casey and Joos (1983) found that the proportion of heat lost from the thorax per time unit decreases as the body mass of the insect increases, therefore larger insects are slower at gaining and loosing heat. Bishop and Armbruster (1999) also concluded that the ability to raise temperature in order to fly increases with body size making bumblebees better thermoregulators than solitary bees. Even when looking at solitary bees larger solitary bees will be better at thermoregulation than smaller solitary bees. Foraging activity can be restricted by thermoregulation factors (Heinrich 1974) and not just over winter. In the summer months foraging at high latitudes and higher temperatures may prove to be difficult for larger insects with solitary bees reaping the floral rewards. Whilst in cooler areas at lower latitudes larger bees, such as bumblebees will have the advantage (Bishop and Armbruster 1999). Tropical bumblebees have been found to be the largest bees, an exception to the rest of the findings by Peat et al (2205). They found that the mean size of bumblebees varies between different climates with colder climates having a larger mean size than those of warmer climates. Size variation of bumblebees within a region was found not to be related to temperature but other factors, possibly to improve colony foraging with different sizes able to visit different flowers (Peat et al 2005). It is not just at different temperatures, different latitudes and different elevations that there are heat constraints on the species present but also a daily sequence. Heinrich (1976) observed bees visiting flower patches and noted the day sequence process. Large insects, such as large bumblebees, are able to achieve a body temperature high enough to fly at a lower temperature than a smaller insect, for example a small solitary bee. This then means that earlier in the day the bumblebee can begin to forage and last longer into the evening when the temperature of the environment begins to fall. However in the midday heat the bumblebee may become overheated and need to retreat and cease flying for a few hours. The small solitary bee although not able to start until later and unable to continue into the evening will be able to cope in the midday heat and continue to forage (Unwin and Corbet 1991). The temperature of the area determines the foraging activity of bees and will influence the bees present in the area. What is under-researched is the effect of very localised temperature has on the bees and size of bees present. 1.5: Climate The temperature of the environment does not only determine the body temperature of the insect but also the geographical range (Gates 1993). Over the past 30years shifts in the abundance and distribution of a variety of species have been witnessed due to climate change (Parmesan and Yohe 2003). Hickling et al (2006) studied the distributions of different taxonomic groups in Britain over the last 25years to examine any shifts in range that may have occurred. A shift in distribution upwards and northwards was found in most taxonomic groups with the latitude being a more significant factor than elevation. Alterations to geographic ranges will impact different organisms in different ways and at different times in their lifecycle. It is possible that the interactions between organisms could be severely affected and possibly even destroyed, in some instances resulting in the extinction of one or both of the species. With these shifts in distributions comes the increased possibility of species extinctions, one prediction for 2050 using a mid-range climate scenario showed 15-37% of species committed to extinction (Thomas et al 2004). In order to avoid the risk of extinction species will have to be able to keep up with the changing climate by migrating at fast enough rates however barriers such as mountains and fragmented, disturbed landscapes may hinder this migration (Pearson and Dawson 2003). General climate models which observe the possible consequences of climate change show a general pattern of the increasing of the Mediterranean summer drought (Gates 1993). As a result it is expected that a shift in species composition will occur and drought conditions will lead to reduced plant cover. This will inevitably impact many insect species including pollinators, such as bees, that will lose their source of nectar and pollen. Research suggests that resource specialists are likely to be the first to suffer declines as they rely on just one plant for their pollen (Cane et al 2006). Looking at the effect of local temperatures on abundance and richness may be able to give an indication of what will follow with global climate change and thus be an aid for planning and conservation measures. 2: Aims and Objectives Bees are essential for pollination and are the key to maintaining life as we know it. Reaching and maintaining the right temperature is essential for an insect’s flight, there is evidence that reaching this temperature is related to body size but does it vary with temperature within a microclimate? Does the local temperature affect the bee diversity and abundance and will this provide any insights into what may happen in the face of global climate change? Within Europe it has been reported that it is the remaining semi-natural habitats that contain the most species richness. If this is the case it would be expected that areas of human disturbance would experience a much lower diversity and abundance. In this project the aim is to examine the effect that the local conditions, temperature and landscape, have on the abundance and genera of bees in a selection of regions across Europe. Within this there are three main objectives to be examined: To determine if the local temperature affects the abundance and diversity of bees. To determine if the surrounding landscape, disturbed or natural, affects the diversity and abundance of bees. To establish whether the size of certain genera are significantly affected by the local environment. 3: Methodology 3.1: Site selection Samples of pollinators were collected in field sites throughout Europe in the summer of 2007 as part of the CITIRAT (Climate Interactions with Terrestrial plant Interactions a Risk Assessment Tool) project. The CITIRAT project is part of the wider EU ALARM (Assessing LArge scale Risks for biodiversity with tested Methods) project (http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/). The field sites for the CITIRAT project were pre-determined by ALARM, with the core sites situated in different regions throughout Europe allowing the study of most of the climatic regions in Europe. For each of the core sites there are two sites measuring 4km by 4km within 50km of each other. One of the two sites being predominantly natural or semi-natural and the other site a disturbed landscape. The two focal sites have being selected so that the geological and environmental parameters are as similar as possible allowing the human disturbance to be the most distinguishing features between the sites. Figure 3.1.1 shows examples of the land cover in each category. Table 3.1.1: An example of the classification of disturbed and natural sites, categories taken from the level 3 CORINE 2000 land cover classification. Disturbed Non-irrigated arable land, pastures, discontinuous urban fabric, complex cultivation procedures, fruit trees and berry plantations, agro-forestry areas, olive groves, permanently irrigated land. Natural/semi-natural Mixed forest, coniferous forest, broadleaved forest, transitional woodland-scrub, sclerophyllous vegetation, natural grasslands. Using GIS analysis the temperature for each of the disturbed and natural areas was calculated using a model which combined the elevation, slope, aspect, average daytime temperature, clear sky solar radiation maps. This model then gave the temperatures for points throughout the landscape, the hottest 10% and coldest 10% of points were selected and ranked, the top two temperature points for both hot and cold were then determined and ready for fieldwork to begin. 3.2: Sampling method Each of the two landscapes (disturbed and natural) had two sampling rounds approximately 2 weeks apart. Within each sampling round two hot and two cold temperature sites were used (as predetermined by the GIS analysis). Each temperature spot had three cluster sets of pan traps, one white, one yellow and one blue. Each cluster contained five pan traps of a single colour. Each cluster was situated five metres apart in open, low vegetation at ground level. The pan traps were left out over a two day period in dry conditions with low wind and a temperature of greater than 15 ºC. Leaving pan traps out over a two day period eradicated any daily variation in bee species present due to daily temperature fluctuations. By using all three coloured pan traps bias was reduced as a range of colour preferences could be catered for (Leong and Thorp 1999). When the samples, preserved in alcohol, were returned to Leeds the samples were sorted taking note of the number of honeybees, number of bumble bees, number of other bees, number of hoverflies and the number of butterflies. Anything else that was collected in traps was discarded. The bumblebees and other bees were removed from the sample tubes, and were dried, pinned and labelled. The bees were then identified to genus level and the results recorded. Figure 3.3.1: Map of Europe showing the ALARM core sites. The yellow dots indicate the sites used in this analysis and their ‘country’ label. Adapted from an image available at: http://www.alarmproject.net. 3.3: Analytical method Samples were collected at sites all across Europe. Time and resource restraints meant that not all of the sites sampled could be pinned and identified for use in this study. The sites used were carefully selected with sites showing high variation in elevation and therefore temperature differences chosen. Figure 3.3.1 shows the European sites used in this project and table 3.3.1 shows the latitude and longitude of the sites. From here on these ‘sites’ will be called countries to avoid confusion. Table 3.3.1: Sites used with the latitude and Longitude Country Landscape Latitude Longitude Austria Disturbed 47.5205 14.1432 Austria Natural 48.0125 15.1620 Catalunya Disturbed 41.2620 1.7714 Catalunya Natural 41.2526 1.9006 Germany Disturbed 51.5491 9.7754 Germany Natural 51.4540 12.9410 Italy Disturbed 45.6202 12.4526 Italy Natural 45.7775 12.6088 Spain Disturbed 39.3153 -4.0661 Spain Natural 39.4133 -4.0650 UK Disturbed 51.5082 -1.5310 UK Natural 51.7650 -0.4585 To calculate the diversity for each of the conditions at each of the sites the Simpson’s diversity index, which is â€Å"one of the most meaningful and robust diversity measures†(Magurran 2004) was used. The index works by calculating the probability, that from a community of infinite size, two individuals will belong to the same species. The Simpson diversity index was expressed as 1-D therefore meaning that as the Simpson’s diversity decreases as does the diversity, this logical adaptation of the index mean that the diversity of the samples could easily be calculated and compared. In order to determine if the size of bees are affected by the local conditions one genus, Halictus was chosen due to them making up a large proportion of total individuals present. To measure the Halictus samples a random number table was used to determine which specimens should be measured. All of the specimens were females and from two countries, Spain and Germany. Digital callipers were used under a microscope to measure the width of the thorax, in-between the base of the wings. The numbers of Bombus’ were looked at as well as the size of the Halictus. Bombus’ are known to be (generally) a larger body size and better thermoregulators so provide a good genus to use as an indication of distribution related to the local environment factors. The information available for use in the statistical analysis was the number of individuals, the number of genera, the temperature (hot or cold), the landscape (disturbed or natural), the country, the sample round (1 or 2), the site (either 1 or 2), the diversity (Simpson’s 1-D), the number of bumblebees, the number of solitary bees and for a selection of sites the size of Halictus. The statistical analysis was carried out using R and Minitab for the principal component analysis. Excel was used for the production of some of the graphics. Not all the data was normally distributed, distributions were checked using the Shapiro-Wilk test. The analysis used was a mixed effects model but not all data meet the assumptions so where unavoidable non-parametric tests were used, a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL). 4: Results Nineteen Genera were identified; a list of these genera and authorities can be viewed in the appendix A. One genus could not be confirmed despite various opinions but is suspected that it might be Panurginus. 4.1: Individuals and genera Figure 4.1.1: The mean number of individuals per sample round, error bars indicate  ±1 SE. (t66= -5.804, p= A mixed effects model was used for the analysis of the individuals. The random effects were site, landscape and country. The standard deviation estimate for country was 0.528 showing that for the countries there was a variation from the mean, this may affect the outcome of the model. The only significant factor was sample round (t66=-6.456, p= There were no significant differences in individuals within temperature, landscape, sample round or any of the interaction terms. To alleviate the problem of countries having a great variation in the numbers of individuals the model was rerun with countries as a fixed factor. This reduced the variation of the random effects and recalculated the fixed effects. Sample round remained the only significant factor (t66= 5.804, p= The dataset for genera was non-parametric so the model used was the glmmPQL. A very low standard deviation estimate was given for each of the random factors (country= 4.2: Diversity The generalised mix effects model for diversity used Simpson’s 1-D values. The estimates of standard deviation for the random effect of country were extremely low, Figure 4.1.2: The mean diversity (Simpson’s 1-D) for each country. Error bars indicate  ± 1 SE. The diversity was not significantly for any of the factors, Standard deviation between countries was low at 4.3: Bumblebees and other bees The numbers of bumblebees (Bombus spp) were used in a generalised mixed effects model (glmmPQL) in order to determine if there were significant differences in the variation between temperature, landscape and sample round. The standard deviation of country was high at 1.376 showing that within the effect of country there was a lot of variation from the mean, thus contributing to the variation in bumblebees and possibly influencing the overall model. Of the fixed factors sample round and landscape were shown to be significant. Bumblebee numbers were significantly different for sample round (t79=-3.59, p=0.001, 95%CL) and landscape (t76= -3.314, p=0.001, 95%CL). Rerunning the model with country as a fixed factor changed the results. The standard deviation of the site was low at 81= -3.153, 95%CL), sample round (p=0.001, t81 = -3.394,) and also several countries were significantly different from the control country which was Austria. Catalunya (p=0.001, t81=-3.488, 95% CL), Italy (p=0.043, t81=-2.060, 95%CL), Spain (p=0.014, t81=-2.513, 95%CL) and the UK (p=0.002, t81=3.266, 95% CL). Germany was proven to not be significantly different from Austria (P=0.392, t81=-0.861, 95%CL) (figure 4.3.3). Figure 4.3.2: The number of bumblebees per landscape. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.153, p=0.002, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.1: The number of bumblebees per sample round. Error bars indicate  ± 1SE (t81=-3.394, p=0.001, 95%CL). Figure 4.3.3: The mean number of bumblebees per country, error bars represents  ± 1 SE. The number of other bees (bees that were not honeybee or bumblebees) were taken and used in a mixed effect generalised linear model (glmmPQL). The model was initially run with the random factors of country and site. The standard deviation for country was 0.968